Jammu & Kashmir For Civil Services, JKSSB, JKPSC and other related Examinations

Vol. I

Mukesh Kr. Sharma

NOTION PRESS

ISBN: 9781685092726 This book has been published to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. While the author has used his best efforts in preparing this book, he makes no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and author cannot be held responsible if an error is found or has been committed. No part of this book shall be used, reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Neither the Publisher nor Editor nor the Author endorse or approve the Content of this book or guarantee the reliability, accuracy or completeness of the Content published herein and do not make any representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, including but not limited to the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose. The Publisher and Editor or the Author shall not be liable whatsoever for any errors, omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause or claims for loss or damages of any kind, including without limitation, indirect or consequential loss or damage arising out of use, inability to use, or about the reliability, accuracy or sufficiency of the information contained in this book. © Mukesh Kr. Sharma | 2021 |

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Whenever there is a decline of righteousness, and the rise of unrighteousness, then I re-incarnate myself, O descendant of Bharata. (7) To liberate the seekers of truth, to take the power away from the wicked ones and to re-establish the way of the human principles, I do appear age after age. (8) - Shrimadbhagwadgita Chapter 4-GyanKarmSanyasYog

Dedicated to My Grandfather Late Sh. Prem N. Sharma

Table of Contents Vol. I

1. Our Past ................................................................................ 3 1.1 The Erstwhile State of Jammu and Kashmir ................ 4 1.2 History of Jammu & Kashmir (Including Ladakh) ....... 7 History of Kashmir ........................................................................ 9 History of Jammu ...................................................................... 25 History of Ladakh ....................................................................... 35

PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 40

2. The Big Decision ....................................................……..65 2.1 Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 ....... 66

3. Strengthening Grassroots Democracy (Acts & Rules) 77 3.1 Jammu & Kashmir Panchayati Raj Act, 1989 ............... 78 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 116 3.2 Jammu & Kashmir Panchayati Raj Rules, 1996 ....... 131 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 188

4. The Heritage & Culture ................................................. 194 4.1 The People .......................................................................... 195 4.2 The Heritage ................................................................... 196 4.3 The Language & Literature ........................................... 201 4.4 The Culture ...................................................................... 211 Art & Craft .................................................................................. 211 Folk Dance Forms & Music.................................................... 216 Fairs & Festivals......................................................................... 225

PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 229

5. The Geography .............................................................. 236 5.1 Geography of Jammu and Kashmir: Introduction .. 237 5.2 Jammu and Kashmir: Physiography ........................... 240 5.3 Jammu and Kashmir: Mountain Ranges & Passes . 245 5.4 Jammu and Kashmir: Soils and Minerals ................ 248 5.5 Jammu and Kashmir: Climate .................................... 254 5.6 Jammu and Kashmir: Agriculture & Irrigation ........ 256 5.7 Jammu and Kashmir: Drainage System .................. 273 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 293

6. Flora and Fauna ............................................................. 316 6.1 Jammu and Kashmir: Flora ......................................... 317 6.2 Jammu and Kashmir: Fauna ....................................... 324 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 337

Table of Contents Vol. II

7. Economic Profile ............................................................ 343 7.1 Jammu and Kashmir: Energy Resources ...................... 344 7.2 Jammu and Kashmir: Industries .................................... 357 7.3 Jammu and Kashmir: Transport & Communication 365 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 380 8. The Polity ......................................................................... 386 8.1 Jammu & Kashmir: Polity .................................................. 387 8.2 Jammu & Kashmir: Party System ................................... 399 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 403 9. Places to Visit ................................................................... 409 9.1 Jammu and Kashmir: Tourist and Historical Places . 410 9.2 Jammu and Kashmir: Religious Places ......................... 447 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 470 10. Popular Faces ................................................................ 478 10.1 Jammu and Kashmir: Famous Personalities ............ 479 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 485 11. District Profile ................................................................ 488 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 505 12. Miscellaneous Information ........................................ 517 12.1 Jammu and Kashmir: Sports .......................................... 518 12.2 Jammu and Kashmir: Land Reforms .......................... 523 12.3 Indus Water Treaty, 1960 .............................................. 527 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 529

Chapter 1 Our Past

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1.1 The Erstwhile State of Jammu & Kashmir The Erstwhile State of Jammu and Kashmir came into being as a single political and geographical entity following the Treaty of Amritsar between the British Government and Maharaja Gulab Singh signed on March 16, 1846. The Treaty handed over the control of the Kashmir State to the Dogra rulers of Jammu who were already controlling the Ladakh region. Thus, the new State comprising three distinct regions of Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh was formed with Maharaja Gulab Singh as its founder ruler. Strategically located the erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir State constitutes the northern most extremity of India. Situated between 32.17 degrees and 36.58 degrees North latitude and 73.26 degrees and 80.30 degrees East longitude, the total area of the erstwhile State was 2, 22, 236 sq. km which includes 78114 sq. km under illegal occupation of Pakistan and 5180 sq. km illegally handed over by Pakistan to China and 37555 sq. km under illegal occupation of China in Leh (Ladakh). The State is bounded by China in the East and North, Afghanistan in the North-West and Pakistan in the West. The Southern boundary is contiguous with Himachal Pradesh and Gurdaspur District of Punjab. The northern and eastern areas of the State are occupied by series of Mount Austin Godwin, the second highest peak of the world with height of 28265 feet.

Image Source: http://www.spslandforces.com/

[Note: PoK is an integral part of India, we shown above map to make our explanation easy. The PoK is administratively divided into two parts, which are called Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan in official languages. 'Azad Jammu and Kashmir' in Pakistan is also called Azad Kashmir. The original State of J&K which acceded to India in October 1947 comprised 2,22,236 sq. km. But today India is in physical occupation of only 1,06,566 sq. km of the original state of J&K. Pakistan occupied Kashmir (POK) is 72,935 sq. km less 5,180 sq. km of Shaksgam Valley leased to China in 1963 (This area is called a ceded area or Trans-Karakoram Tract). China Occupied Kashmir (COK) consists of 37,555 sq. km of Aksai Chin plus Shaksgam and territory nibbled over the years, all totalling up to 42,735 sq. km. IMPORTANT NOTE: The erstwhile state shares a 221 km international boundary with Pakistan in the Jammu region and 365 km with China along Ladakh. The Line of Control (LoC), which divides the Indian and Pak- parts of Jammu and Kashmir, is 1001 km long border (Jammu - 205 km, Valley - 460 km, and Ladakh/Siachin area -336 km). The erstwhile State‘s border with China is 465 km long. The Chinese-held territory is called Aksai Chin (meaning un-inhabited). ]

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The erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir State has many rivers and its four principal rivers are the Indus, the Jhelum, the Chenab and the Ravi. The State with its summer and winter capitals at Srinagar and Jammu, respectively, consists of 22 districts, 10 in Kashmir Valley, 10 in Jammu Division and 2 in Ladakh. It has four geographical zones of Sub-mountain and semi-mountain plain known as kandi or dry belt,  the Shivalik ranges,  the high mountain zone constituting the Kashmir valley, Pir Panchal range and its off-shoots including Doda, Poonch and Rajouri districts and part of Kathua and Udhampur districts and  The middle runs of the Indus River comprising Leh and Kargil. The climate varies from tropical in the Jammu plains to semi-arctic cold in Ladakh with Kashmir and Jammu mountainous tracts having temperate climate conditions. The annual rainfall also varies from region to region with 92.6 mm in Leh, 650.5 mm in Srinagar and 1115.9 mm in Jammu. The State is geologically constituted of rocks varying from the oldest period of the earth's history to the youngest present day river and lake deposits. The State is rich in art, culture and history and in archaeological and historical sites reflecting a glorious past. While Kashmir is said to have the oldest recorded history in the world, Jammu and Ladakh too find mention in the ancient history. Jammu and Kashmir was one of the 565 princely States of India on which the British paramountcy lapsed at the stroke of mid-night on August 15, 1947. On independence from the British yoke, the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir then ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, elected to accede to the Union of India by signing an Instrument of Accession. The Instrument of Accession was executed and signed by the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh and the Governor General of India, Lord Mountbatten on October 26/27, 1947. The Maharaja announced a popular interim government on March 5, 1948 and appointed Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah as the Prime Minister. On June 20, 1949 when Maharaja Hari Singh had to leave the State for reasons of health, he appointed Yuvraj Karan Singh, his son, as Regent through a Proclamation issued on June 20, 1949. On January 26, 1950, when India became a Republic, Article 370 of the Constitution of India conferred a special status on the Erstwhile State of Jammu and Kashmir. The Regent, as Head of the State, issued a Proclamation on May 1, 1951 directing formation of a Constituent Assembly of elected members. The Constituent Assembly after the Delhi Agreement elected the Regent, Yuvraj Karan Singh, as Sadar-i-Riyasat of the State on August 19, 1952. On May, 1954, the President of India issued the Constitution Order 1954-CO 48 dated 14-5-1954 under Article 370 extending the Constitution of India to the State with exception and modifications contained in the order. On November 17, 1956, the State Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir declaring the State to be an integral part of the Union of India. While the Constitution was adopted on January 26, 1957, Sections 3 & 4 of the Constitution came into force with immediate effect. By the 6th amendment to the Erstwhile State Constitution adopted on March 28, 1965, the Sadar-i-Riyasat was re-designated as the Governor and the Prime Minister of the State as the Chief Minister. The erstwhile State of Jammu and Kashmir had the unique distinction of having its own Constitution and the Flag, unlike any other State of the Country. In the event of failure of Constitutional machinery in any of the States of the country, President's Rule is imposed under Article 356 of the Constitution of India. But, in the case of Jammu and Kashmir

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Governor's Rule for a period of six months is imposed under the provision of Section 92 of the State Constitution and the Proclamation to this effect is issued by the Governor only after the consent of the President of India has been received. The State Assembly is either kept in suspended animation or dissolved. If it is not possible to restore the Constitutional machinery before the expiry of this six months then, provision of Article 356 of the Constitution of India are extended and President's rule is imposed in the State. Erstwhile J&K Flag It was the only state with its Flag designed by Govt. of India. The flag is a native plough on a red background which is a symbol of Labour. Three vertical stripes in the flag represent three administrative divisions of the state. Erstwhile J&K State Emblem  The Strips in the Erstwhile J&K State Emblem represents the cultural regions of the state Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh.  The ploughs and the two ears of corn represent the majority of the state population.  The Lotus in the center stands for the purity and knowledge. J&K State Flower Lotus (N. nucifera) was the official State Flower. Lotus is the water plant. It has broad floating leaves and bright fragrant flowers. The leaves and flowers float and have long stems that contain air spaces. It has many petals overlapping in the symmetrical pattern. The root functions of the Lotus are carried out by rhizomes that fan out horizontally through the mud below the water. The round leaves are upto 50 cm in diameter. J&K State Tree Chinar (also known as ‘Booune’ in Kashmiri) was the Official State Tree. Platanus orientalis, or oriental plane, is a large, deciduous tree of the deciduous tree of the Platanaceae family, growing to 30 m (98 ft.) or more, and known for its longevity and spreading crown. J&K State Animal The Hangul or Kashmir Stag (Cervus elaphus banglu) – only surviving race of Red Deer in the Indian subcontinent. Dachigam is the home of Kashmiri Stag. J&K UT Bird Kalij Pheasant (Lophura leucomelanos) has been declared as bird of the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir. It is widely found particularly in Mansar, Surinsar, Jasrota and Bhaderwah areas of J&K UT. Note: Erstwhile state of J&K had Blacked Necked Crane (Grus nogricollis) as the State Bird of J&K. *

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1.2 History of Jammu & Kashmir (Including Ladakh) The Land

By virtue of its central position in the Asia, Kashmir commands a strategic importance touching on the NW-Afghanistan, on the north the Sinkiung-Uighur Autonomous Region of China, and on the West Pakistan. It stands on the old Central Asian Trade Route and the Kashmir Valley has, since ancient times, been the halting place of caravans travelling between the plains of India and high reaches of Central Asia. In the East of this region flows the river Ravi and to its west the river Jhelum. Jammu, the winter capital of J&K, stands on the spur of a hill overlooking small river Tawi. Both Tawi and Ujh, another small river, are chiefly dependent on rain which often floods during monsoon. The river Chenab issues from the mountains into the plains near the town of Akhnoor, 29 km to the NW of Jammu and flows through parts of Jammu district before entering into the plains of Punjab. Jammu city is about 314 m high from the sea and spreads over more than 2 km. The prominent features of the city are its temples with pointed spires, and the imposing palace. Jammu region experiences tropical heat from April to June and rainy season from July to September and winter from October till March. The vegetation is tropical here. Region of the ‘Middle Mountains’ Lies between the ‘Outer Hills’ in the south to the lofty mountain ranges dividing the Kashmir Valley from Jammu called the ‘Middle Mountains’ which lies between 1219 m to 3658 m above sea level. It consists of the valleys of Bhaderwah, Kishtwar and Padar. The forest of this region is rich with silver fir, deodar, spruce, oak and pine. From the ‘Middle Mountains’ onwards one comes to the region of lofty mountains which encloses the basin-shaped valley of Kashmir. The broad outline of this part commences from Pir Panjal range in the south and south-west of the valley, varying height of 2438 m to 4557 m. There are peaks on this range which rise to the elevations from 3901 m (Kounser Nag) to 4732 m (Tratakoti) and highest of that of Romesh Thong, also called the Sunset Peak. Kashmir Valley Nested securely among the Himalayas at an average height of 1829 m above the sea, valley is approximately 135 km in length 3o to 40 km in breadth. The mountains snows feed the river Jhelum and the streams and it is calculated that the Jhelum in its course through the Valley has catchment area of about 10,240 km. Origin  Legend has it that Kashmir was actually a vast mountain lake called the Satisar (As per Nilamata-purana) and geologists attest to this. Volcanic actions may have formed the original lake or its subsequent desiccation.  On the basis of one theory, the drainer of this lake was ascetic Kashyap Rishi; hence the word ‘Kash’ of Kashmir comes from name of Kashyap and valley came to be known as Kashyap-pur or Kashyap-mar and later Kashmir. According to another theory, ‘Kash’ means Channel and ‘Mir’ means Mountain.

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 In the Puranas, Kashmir is called gerek (hill) because of is overwhelming hilly features.  The ancient Greek historian Ptolemy, also a mathematician and geographer in his book ‘Geographia’ called it "Kasperia," and in the classical literature Herodotus (Greek Historian, 450 BCE) mentions it as ‘Kaspatyros’ and Hekataios calls it by the name of Kaspalyros or Kaspapyros. It is called Shie-mi in the narrative of To Yeng and Sung-Yan (578 CE). Some other Chinese accounts referred to Kashmir as ‘ki-pin or Chipin or Jipin and ache-pin’.  Huien-Tsang (Chinese Pilgrim) who visited India during the reign of Harshvardhana came to valley from Urusha (Hazara) in the west in the 7 th century CE (631 CE) and stayed here for two years to study Buddhist and Sanskrit lore during the period of King Durlabha Vardhana of Kashmir, in his book “Si-Yu-Ki” of travels that he wrote on his return, called the valley of Kashmir as "Kia-shi-milo".  Kashmir is known by many other names also. The Tibetans called its Khachal and Dards named it Kashrat. The Kashmiri in their own tongue call it Kashir or Kashur.  The earliest text which directly mentions the name ‘Kashmir’ is in Ashtadhyayi written by Sanskrit Grammarian Panini during 5th century BCE.  Cashmere is an archaic spelling of modern word Kashmir. Srinagar, the summer capital of J&K, situated in the centre of the valley stands on the bank of river Vitasta (Jhelum). One of the oldest cities in India, its history dates back to times of Asoka. Srinagar with its numerous canals and adjacent Dal Lake is aptly called the ‘Venice of the East’ and is the centre of trade and commerce. Baramulla towards the NW of the valley is a town of importance. Near Baramulla, there is another town called Sopore, originally founded in 9th century CE. It is the centre of wool industry and fruit. In the south of the valley, there is famous town of Anantnag. With its numerous springs, some of these have medicinal properties. Shopian, the starting point of old Mughal Road over the Pir Panjal Range is famous as centre of fruit trade. The major occupation here is agriculture. Rice, wheat, barley and fruits are cultivated. Handicrafts and manufacture of woollens give employment to a fair proportion of people. Ladakh and Gilgit Beyond the valley are Ladakh, ‘the land of Lamas’, Baltistan and Dardistan. The whole region is mountainous. The population is sparse owing to extreme climate and low production. Ladakh lies to east of Kashmir Valley. The elevation of this part varies from 2460 m 4615 m above the sea. The mountains vary in height from 5230 m to 7692 m. The ‘Karakoram Ranges’ form the northern boundary of the Ladakh. To the south lies the ‘Ladakh Range’ and further south the ‘Zansakar Range’, the two being cut by river Indus. The climate of Ladakh is very rigorous. The nights are very cold and days are very hot. Due to opposite position of mountains to the direction of winds, there is very low or no rain. Crops such as Barley, wheat, buck-wheat, peas, grim, rapeseed, beans and turnips are cultivated. The Indus Valley, known as Baltistan, covers an area of 16957 sq. km. It is bounded on the north by Karakoram Mountains, on the east by Ladakh, on the south by Himalayas and on the west by Dardistan. The valley of shayok and the illaqas of Shigar and Skardu are well populated. Shigar is the fertile part of this region. Skardu is capital town of Baltistan.

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The river Indus is crossed here in boats called Zak made of inflated hides, but where it is narrow, is crossed by rope bridges. There are several hot springs and also several glaciers of which Baltoro is, except the ice-bound oceans of Arctic regions, the largest in the world. Dardistan extends in the north to the Karakoram and besides Gilgit, comprises Hunza, Nagar and the small principalities of Chilas, Yasin, Punial, Ghizar, Ishkoman and Koh. Gilgit is 359 km from Srinagar by road over the Burzil pass above the northern bank of Wular Lake. Gilgit (1504 m) is fertile and well watered. Sources of Kashmir History Sources of Kashmir History (early and medieval) can be divided into two broad categories: (A) The rich collection of indigenous records, traditions and archaeological and numismatic finds. (B) The notices in foreign chronicles, records of travellers and recent archaeological discoveries. (A) Historical Traditions:  The Rajatarangini or ‘the river of Kings’: Written in Sanskrit verse by Kalhana in 1148-49 CE comprises of eight Cantos of Sanskrit verse the history of various dynasties which ruled Kashmir from the earliest down to the time of the author, who began to write his work in 1148 CE. The Rajatarangini observes J.L Nehru “is a rich storehouse of information; political, social and to some extent economic”. Kalhana himself testified the existence of at least eleven earlier compositions which he consulted to write his own immortal Rajatarangini. These include:  Kshemendra’s Nrapavali  Chronicles of Padmamihira and Chavillakaran  Nilamata-purana (by Nila Muni)Excepting Nilamata-purana, ‘all eleven works of former scholars containing the chronicles of kings’ which he consulted are now lost.  As early as the 15th century, King Zain-ul-Abidin had Rajatarangini translated into Persian by Mulla Ahmad. Later, under the orders from Akbar, Abul Fazl incorporated long abstracts in his ‘Ain-i-Akbari’. Bernier who visited Kashmir in 1665 CE makes a mention of it in his ‘Letters’. Moorcraft obtained a copy of it during his visit to the valley in 1823 CE and this copy was translated into French by M. Troyer. Dr. Stein translated it in English in 1900 CE. In 1935 CE, R. S. Pandit brought out his English translation of Rajatarangini laying emphasis on its poetic and literary qualities.  Kshemendra’s Nrapavali, Desopadesa, Narmamala, Lokaprakasha, Samyayamatarika: Nrapavali is now lost; Desopadesa depicts daily life of people of Kashmir-cheats, misers, students etc. Narmamala is a satirical poem on misrule and oppression prevalent in his times. Samyayamatarika- a poem intended to describe the snares of worldly temptations.  Later Chronicles:  Kalhana’s work was continued by his countryman Jonaraja who brought the Chronicle down to the reign of King Zain-ul-Abidin (1420-70AD).  Malik Haider Chaudura wrote history of Kashmir from earliest times to his times in Persian in 1617 CE.

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  

Narayan Kaul Aziz in his ‘Twarikh-i-Kashmir’ written in 1710 gives an assessment of reigns of Sultans and early Mughals from a Liberal point of view. Muhammad Azam Kaul - ‘Waquat-i-Kashmir’ (1746). Ghulam Mohi-ud-din Sufi – Kashir (1925).

(B) Foreign Notices:  Ptolemy, a Greek historian, mathematician and geographer in his book ‘Geographia’ mentioned Kashmir as "Kasperia".  Hekataios calls it by the name of Kaspalyros or Kaspapyros as the city of Gandharians.  Herodotus (Greek Historian, 450 BCE) mentioned Kashmir as ‘Kaspatyros’.  Huien-Tsang (Chinese Pilgrim) who visited India during the reign of Harshvardhana came to valley from Urusha (Hazara) in the west in the 7 th century CE (631 CE) and stayed in Kashmir for two years to study Buddhist and Sanskrit lore during the period of King Durlabha Vardhana of Kashmir, in his book “Si-Yu-Ki” of travels that he wrote on his return, called the valley of Kashmir as "Kia-shi-milo". His narrative tells that he left the valley in 633 CE by the way of Tosa-Maidan route to reach modern day Poonch. Kashmir, Tsang, described as a country surrounded on all sides by very high mountains which have very narrow and contracted passes for entry.  Alberuni in his work ‘India’.  The first Europeans to visit Kashmir were Father Gerome Xavier and Benoist de Gois who appeared in the court of Akbar and accompanied the Emperor to Kashmir (During third visit of Akbar in 1598). Father Gerome Xavier published these details in 1605. The valley that time was under severe famine.  F. Bernier who accompanied Aurangzeb to Kashmir in 1665 CE makes a mention of the route details from Delhi to Kashmir and habits of people in his famous ‘Letters’.  Fredric Drew – ‘The Jamoo and Kashmir Territories’ (1875)  Sir Walter Lawrence – ‘Valley of Kashmir’ (1895)  Alexander Cunningham – ‘Ladakh’ is a mine of information on ‘land of Lamas’. Somadeva Somadeva was an 11th century CE writer from Kashmir. He was the author of a collection of South Indian legends, fairy tales and folk tales - the Kathasaritsagara ("Ocean of the Streams of Stories") in Sanskrit. He was a Shaivite. Kathasaritsagara contains multiple layers of story within a story and is said to have been adopted from Guṇāḍhya's Bṛhatkathā, which was written in a poorly-understood language known as Paiśācī. Rajtarangini  Rajatarangini ("The River of Kings") is a metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-western Indian subcontinent, particularly the kings of Kashmir.  It was written in Sanskrit by Kashmiri historian Kalhana in the 12th century CE during Jaisimha’s reign of Lohara Dynasty.  The work consists of 7826 verses, which are divided into eight books called Tarangas ("waves").  The Rajtaringini provides the earliest source on Kashmir that can be labelled as a "historical" text on this region.

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 Although inaccurate in its chronology, the book still provides an invaluable source of information about early Kashmir and its neighbours in the north western parts of the Indian subcontinent, and has been widely referenced by later historians and ethnographers. Author  Kalhana (sometimes spelled Kalhan), a Kashmiri, was the author of Rajatarangini born to a Kashmiri minister, Champaka, who probably served king Harsa of the Lohara dynasty. It is possible that his birthplace was Parihaspora and his birth would have been very early in the 12th century. He wrote the work in Sanskrit between 1148 and 1149.  All information regarding his life has to be deduced from his own writing, a major scholar of which is Mark Aurel Stein. Robin Donkin has argued that with the exception of Kalhana, "there are no [native Indian] literary works with a developed sense of chronology, or indeed much sense of place, before the thirteenth century". Sequels  Rajatarangini by Jonaraja: During the reign of Zain-ul-Abidin, Jonaraja authored a sequel by the same name. Also known as Dvitiya Rajatarangini ("second Rajatarangini"), it gives an account of Kashmir from c. 1150 CE to 1459 CE.  Jaina-Rajatarangini by Srivara: After Jonaraja's death in 1459, his disciple Srivara Pandita continued his work. He titled his work Jaina-Rajatarangini, and it is also known as Tritiya Rajatarangini ("third Rajatarangini"). It gives an account of Kashmir from 1459 CE to 1486 CE.  Rajavalipataka by Prajyabhatta: Prajyabhatta's Rajavalipataka gives an account of Kashmir from 1486 to 1512.  Chaturtha Rajatarangini by Suka: Suka extended Prajyabhatta's work, resulting in the Chaturtha Rajatarangini ("fourth Rajatarangini"). Suka's book ends with the arrival of Asaf Khan to Kashmir. A later interpolation also covers the arrival of the Mughal emperor Akbar and subsequent events. Translations  A Persian translation of Rajatarangini was commissioned by Zain-ul-Abidin, who ruled Kashmir in the 15th century CE. The version was entitled Behr-ul-Asmar, (or the sea of tales).  Kalhana's Rajatarangini: a chronicle of the kings of Kashmir by Marc Aurel Stein (English Translation)  Rajatarangini: The Saga of the Kings of Kashmir by Ranjit Sitaram Pandit  Kings of Kashmira (1879) by Jogesh Chandra Dutt  Rajatarangini, Hindi translation by Pandit Gopi Krishna Shastri Dwivedi  Histoire Des Rois Du Kachmir: Rajatarangini, French translation by M. Anthony Troyer  Rajatarangini, Urdu translation by Pandit Thakar Acharchand Shahpuriah  Rajatarangini, Telugu translation by Renduchintala Lakshmi Narasimha Sastry

Pre-historic Period and Excavations  Burzahom- Neolithic, Megalithic and early historic period site at Srinagar District.  The Mesolithic or the Proto-Neolithic period appears to be indicated by the findings of De Terra and Patterson in the Jhelum valley of Kashmir “of great numbers of artificially flaked stones among which were flaked cores reminiscent of Palaeolithic technique”.  The Neolithic culture is indicated by the discovery of ground and polished stone axes, hoes and pestles and bone implements at the well-known ancient site of Burzahom 16 km east of Srinagar. Burzahom is famous as one of the two megalithic sites in extreme NW of the Indian sub-continent.

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