ETHICS PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY & PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

DR DEEPAK KUMAR

Copyright © Dr Deepak Kumar All Rights Reserved. ISBN 978-1-68563-755-2 This book has been published with all efforts taken to make the material error-free after the consent of the author. However, the author and the publisher do not assume and hereby disclaim any liability to any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause. While every effort has been made to avoid any mistake or omission, this publication is being sold on the condition and understanding that neither the author nor the publishers or printers would be liable in any manner to any person by reason of any mistake or omission in this publication or for any action taken or omitted to be taken or advice rendered or accepted on the basis of this work. For any defect in printing or binding the publishers will be liable only to replace the defective copy by another copy of this work then available.

Dedicated to my deiform parents. Mrs RANJU DEVI and Sri RAMNARAYAN SINGH

Contents Foreword

vii

Preface

ix

1. Philosophers / Thinkers, Social Reformers

1

2. Attitude, Aptitude, Emotional Intelligence, Individual Differences

19

3. Human Needs And Motivation, Ethics And Values In Public Administration

36

4. Corruption

52

5. Case Studies On Ethical Issues

71

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Foreword

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Preface I have a great pleasure in presenting first edition of ETHICS, PHILOSPHY, PSYCHOLOGY & PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. The main objective of this book is to provide a complete, detailed and analytical syllabus of UPSC and Other State PCS Examinations. It is according to the new syllabus. With the help of this book the candidates can prepare for their examination in an easier way. I am grateful to almighty god and my deiform parents, Mrs. Ranju Devi and Mr. Ramnarayan Singh for their blessings. I am also thankful to my elder brother Dr. Nitesh Kumar and sister Mrs. Ragini Vidyarthi for their constant support and motivation. I am also thankful to my loving daughters Anjali and Sakshi for their faith in me. Special thanks to my student B. Anamika for her assistance and support during this work. Though, it has been tried to keep the book simple and error free. But, I am aware that the book has scope for further improvement. Suggestions for further improvement can be sent to [email protected]. Dr. Deepak Kumar

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I PHILOSOPHERS / THINKERS, SOCIAL REFORMERS Ethical thinking is vital part of human history. It can be religious or theoretical or geared toward practical application. Ethical thinkers can be grouped into ancient thinker, moral thinkers from modern world and moral thinkers of India from ancient to present day. A number of ancient Greek moral theories are concerned with the good life for human beings, or, in one word, happiness. In developing moral standards in their moral theories, the ancient philosophers were dependent on several important concepts. These include the virtues, happiness (eudaimonia), and the soul. Many thinkers debated that being moral does not necessarily provide physical beauty, health, or prosperity. Rather, as something good, virtue must be understood as belonging to the soul, it is a psychological good. However, in order to explain virtue as a good of the soul, one does not have to hold that the soul is immortal. On the contrary, ancient moral theory enlightens morality in terms that focus on the moral agent. These thinkers are interested in what constitutes, e.g., a just person. They emphasized factors such as the state of mind and character, the set of values, the attitudes to oneself and to others, and the conception of one’s own place in the common life of a community that belong to just persons simply insofar as they are just. A modern might object that this way of proceeding is backwards. Just actions are logically prior to just persons and must be specifiable in advance of any account of what it is to be a just person. The development of a moral character is a scholarly matter that has been argued for many years. Many philosophers have argued the point of their existence with the puzzlement of this subject. This has allowed the philosophers to approach this topic in several ways. A moral character is elucidated as an idea in which one is unique and can be distinguished from others. It suggests to the way individuals act, or how they express themselves. It can be said that it is "human excellence," or unique thoughts of a character. Although these philosophers deviate with their arguments, they have some similar views on moral thinking. SOCRATES • Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher considered to be the main source of Western thought. He was condemned to death for his Socratic method of questioning. • Socrates was a scholar, teacher and philosopher born in ancient Greece. His Socratic method laid the groundwork for Western systems of logic and philosophy. • When the political climate of Greece turned against him, Socrates was sentenced to death by hemlock poisoning in 399 B.C. He accepted this judgment rather than fleeing into exile. • Plato pointed out that in the eyes of his students, Socrates possessed a different kind of attractiveness, not based on a physical ideal but on his brilliant debates and penetrating thought. • Socrates always emphasized the importance of the mind over the relative unimportance of the human body. This credo inspired Plato’s philosophy of dividing reality into two separate realms, the world of the senses and the ●1●

ETHICS PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY & PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

world of ideas, declaring that the latter was the only important one.

Philosophy of Socrates • Socrates believed that philosophy should achieve practical results for the greater well-being of society. He attempted to establish an ethical system based on human reason rather than theological doctrine. • Socrates pointed out that human choice was motivated by the desire for happiness. Ultimate wisdom comes from knowing oneself. The more a person knows, the greater his or her ability to reason and make choices that will bring true happiness. • Socrates believed that this translated into politics with the best form of government being neither a tyranny nor a democracy. Instead, government worked best when ruled by individuals who had the greatest ability, knowledge and virtue, and possessed a complete understanding of themselves. • Socrates believed the best way for people to live was to focus on the pursuit of virtue rather than the pursuit, for instance, of material wealth. He always invited others to try to concentrate more on friendships and a sense of true community. • His actions lived up to this standard: in the end, Socrates accepted his death sentence when most thought he would simply leave Athens, as he felt he could not run away from or go against the will of his community. • Socrates stressed that “the unexamined life is not worth living ethical virtue is the only thing that matters.” • Socrates’ opposition to democracy is often denied, and the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates when trying to determine exactly what Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who claim Socrates did not actually believe in the idea of philosopher kings is that the view is expressed no earlier than Plato’s Republic, which is widely considered one of Plato’s “Middle” dialogues and not representative of the historical Socrates’ views. • He believed he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. Socrates’ acceptance of his death sentence after his conviction can also be seen to support this view. • Irvine argues that it was because of his loyalty to Athenian democracy that Socrates was willing to accept the verdict of his fellow citizens. As Irvine puts it, “During a time of war and great social and intellectual upheaval, Socrates felt compelled to express his views openly, regardless of the consequences. As a result, he is remembered today, not only for his sharp wit and high ethical standards, but also for his loyalty to the view that in a democracy the best way for a man to serve himself, his friends, and his city—even during times of war—is by being loyal to, and by speaking publicly about, the truth.” PLATO • • • • • • • • •

Plato was disciple of Socrates (although not confirmed, but they must have met as they were in the same city). He was influenced by Socrates Idea. In dialogue form the thought of Socrates emerges as we don’t have any written text by Socrates. Blended Ethics, Political Philosophy, moral psychology, Epistemology and Metaphysics. Academy in Athens. Philosophical System-“Platonism”-quality of goodness is universal. In favour of Philosopher King who would maintain justice and virtue. Felt democracy could lead to demagoguery and anarchy. Argued for body of knowledge-possible to heal political problems like factionalism, Corruption of Moral. Central work “Republic”

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• Deals with Idea of Justice- i.e. Justice is universal Value and the foundation of the best political order. • Discussed happiness, virtue, Platonic love. Three Parts of Soul 1. Reason–Desire truth and the good of Individual 2. Spirit-Preoccupied with honour and competitive behavior. 3. Appetite-Direct in satiating base tastes and desires. • In Plato’s Republic we see one of the earliest attempts at a systematic theory of ethics. Plato wants to find a good definition for “justice,” a good criterion for calling something “just.” Maybe justice is “telling the truth and paying one’s debts.” But no, Plato says, for sometimes it is just to withhold the truth or not return what was borrowed. • Plato’s suggestion for “justice” is twofold: justice for the state, and justice for the soul. Justice for the state is achieved when all basic needs are met. Three classes of people are needed: artisans and workers to produce goods, soldiers to defend the state, and rulers to organize everything. But you cannot have a just state without just men, especially just rulers. And so we must also achieve justice of the soul. • Plato believed the soul had three parts: reason, appetite, and honor. The desires of these three parts conflicted with each other. For example, we might have a thirst (appetite) for water, but resist accepting it from an enemy for fear of poison (reason). Justice of the soul requires that each part does its proper function, and that their balance is correct. • Justice of the soul merges with justice of the state in that men fall into one of the three classes depending on how the three parts of their soul are balanced. One’s class depends on early training, but mostly, persons are born bricklayers, soldiers, and kings – depending on the balance between the three parts of their soul. • To bring about the ideal state, Plato says, “philosophers become kings… or those now called kings … genuinely and adequately philosophize.” Among other things, the philosopher king is one who can see The Good, that transcendent entity to which we compare something when we call it “good.” The idea of the philosopher-king still appeals to philosophers today, though it has rarely been achieved. It is against this ideal state, ruled by philosopher kings, that Plato can compare other forms of state. The state under martial law (Sparta) is the least disastrous. Oligarchy (Corinth) and democracy (Athens) are worse, and tyranny (Syracuse) is the worst. ARISTOTLE • • • • • • • • • •

Father of logic and reason. Disciple and Contemporary of Plato. Defined fundamental principal of rational view of existence of man’s consciousness. His school called Lyceum- his research student known as “Peripatetics”. Logic and reasoning –tools for conduct of Scientific Invention. His logic states that verbal reasoning lies Syllogism. Defined soul- perfect expression or realization of a natural body. Ethics is means to find chief end or highest good, in Greek “eudaimonia” (actually more than happiness). Happiness means activity of rational soul in accordance with Virtue. Virtue is subset of good qualities that people have which is not innate and is acquired by Practice and lost by disuse. • As the father of western logic, Aristotle was the first to develop a formal system for reasoning. He observed that the deductive validity of any argument can be determined by its structure rather than its content, for example, in the syllogism: All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal. Even if the content of the argument were changed from being about Socrates to being about someone else, because of its structure, as long as the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true. Aristotelian logic dominated until the rise of modern ●3●

ETHICS PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY & PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

propositional logic and predicate logic 2000 years later. • The emphasis on good reasoning serves as the backdrop for Aristotle’s other investigations. In his natural philosophy, Aristotle combines logic with observation to make general, causal claims. For example, in his biology, Aristotle uses the concept of species to make empirical claims about the functions and behavior of individual animals. However, as revealed in his psychological works, Aristotle is no reductive materialist. Instead, he thinks of the body as the matter, and the psyche as the form of each living animal. • Though his natural scientific work is firmly based on observation, Aristotle also recognizes the possibility of knowledge that is not empirical. In his metaphysics, he claims that there must be a separate and unchanging being that is the source of all other beings. In his ethics, he holds that it is only by becoming excellent that one could achieve eudaimonia, a sort of happiness or blessedness that constitutes the best kind of human life. • Aristotle was the founder of the Lyceum, a school based in Athens, Greece; and he was the first of the Peripatetics, his followers from the Lyceum. Aristotle’s works, exerted tremendous influence on ancient and medieval thought and continue to inspire philosophers to this day. MAHAVIR • Mahāvīra, also known as Vardhamāna, was the twenty-fourth and last tirthankara. • In Jainism, a tirthankara (maker of the river crossing) is an omniscient teacher who preaches the dharma (righteous path) and builds a ford across the ocean of rebirth and transmigration. Five Vows He prescribed five major vows (vratas) that both ascetics and householders have to follow. These are five ethical principles that were preached by Mahavira: 1. Ahimsa (Non Violence)– Mahavira taught that every living being has sanctity and dignity of its own and it should be respected just like we expect our own sanctity and dignity to be respected. In simple words, we should show maximum possible kindness to every living being. 2. Satya or truthfulness– which leads to harmony in society. One should speak truth and respect right of property of each other’s in society. One should be true to his own thoughts, words and deeds to create mutual atmosphere of confidence in society. 3. Asteya or non-stealing– which states that one should not take anything if not properly given. 4. Brahmacharya or chastity– which stresses steady but determined restraint over yearning for sensual pleasures. 5. Aparigraha (Non-possession)– non-attachment to both inner possessions (like liking, disliking) and external possessions (like property). Anekantavada ◦ Anekantavada means pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints. ◦ It means that reality is perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth, yet taken together they comprise the complete truth. ◦ Taking a relativistic viewpoint, Mahāvīra is said to have explained the nature of the soul as both permanent from the point of view of underlying substance (nīshyānay), and temporary, from the point of view of its modes and modification. Significant points of Teachings of Lord Mahavir: • Mahavir made religion simple and natural, free from elaborate ritual complexities. His teachings reflected the internal beauty and harmony of the soul. ●4●

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• He taught the idea of supremacy of human life and stressed the importance of the positive attitude of life. • His message of nonviolence (Ahimsa), truth (Satya), non-stealing (Achaurya), celibacy (Brahma-charya), and nonpossession (Aparigraha) is full of universal compassion. • He said that, "A living body is not merely an integration of limbs and flesh but it is the abode of the soul which potentially has perfect perception (Anant-darshana), perfect knowledge (Anant-jnana), perfect power (Anantvirya), and perfect bliss (Anant-sukha). Mahavir’s message reflects freedom and spiritual joy of the living being. • He emphasized that all living beings, irrespective of their size, shape, and form how spiritually developed or undeveloped, are equal and we should love and respect them. This way he preached the gospel of universal love. • He rejected the concept of God as a creator, a protector, and a destroyer of the universe. He also denounced the worshiping of gods and goddesses as a means of material gains and personal benefits. BUDDHA • Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni, or simply the Buddha, was a sage on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. • He prescribed The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold path (Middle path) Four Noble Truths 1. The truth of Suffering– No matter how much we struggle, we are unable to find the ultimate happiness or satisfaction. Suffering is the common bond we share. Therefore suffering is the real truth of our existence. 2. Desire -The truth about the cause of suffering – Cravings, desires and ignorance about reality are the cause of suffering. 3. The truth about end of suffering –If desire is eliminated, then only the suffering would stop. This stage when all desires are burned is called “nirvana” in Buddhism. 4. The path for ending suffering– This path is called the eightfold path. It emphasizes on a middle path between worldly pleasure and painful asceticism. Eightfold Path The Truth of the Way (Mârgasatya), which is the Middle Way, between the extremes of asceticism and indulgence, or the Eightfold Way, which is 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Right Knowledge (or Views), samyak drishti, Right Resolve, samyaksan.kalpa, Right Speech, samyagvâk, Right Conduct (or Action), samyakarma, Right Livelihood, samyagjîva, Right Effort, samyagvyâyâma, Right Mindfulness, samyaksmr.ti, and Right Meditation (or Concentration), samyaksamâdhi.

• Through his deep insight into reality he destroyed his desire, hatred and ignorance, the chains that bound him to the round of rebirth (samsāra), and thus freed himself from all suffering, all stress, all unsatisfactoriness (dukkha). • Out of love for the world the Buddha decided to teach his way to liberation. When we speak of Buddhism today, we mean this teaching, the Dhamma. • During the 45 years in which the Buddha proclaimed the Dhamma, he received many followers. Those followers who in turn freed themselves from suffering, formed the Sangha, the noble order of disciples. • The word Dhamma has several meanings, such as ‘fundamental elements’, ‘reality’ and ‘universal law’. At the heart of Dhamma lie the Four Noble Truths. • First, the truth that there is unsatisfactoriness. Buddhists call this unsatisfactoriness dukkha. ●5●