( i )

(Useful for SSC Graduate Level, Higher Secondary Level, Stenographer C & D, Sub-Inspector and Other Competitive Exams.) By Dr. Jagdish Chandra

Upkar Prakashan, Agra-2

( ii )

© Publishers Publishers (An ISO 9001 : 2000 Company)

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ISBN : 978-93-5013-477-1 Price : ` 120.00 (Rs. One Hundred Twenty Only) Code No. 1834 Printed at Repro Knowledgecast Limited, Thane

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Contents 1. Usage and Vocabulary

3–100

1. Parts of Speech and Rules of Correct Usage ................................................

3

2. The Tense ...................................................................................................

29

3. Sentence Structure ......................................................................................

33

4. Punctuation .................................................................................................

49

5. Common Errors ..........................................................................................

51

6. Vocabulary ..................................................................................................

59

7. Idioms and Idiomatic Phrases and their Usage ..............................................

78

2. Recapitualatory Tests on Usage and Vocabulary

101–117

3. Comprehension

118–148

 Model Test Paper 1 .....................................................................................

149

 Model Test Paper 2 .....................................................................................

153

 Model Test Paper 3 .....................................................................................

157

 Model Test Paper 4 .....................................................................................

161

 Model Test Paper 5 .....................................................................................

165

 Model Test Paper 6 .....................................................................................

169

 Model Test Paper 7 .....................................................................................

173

 Model Test Paper 8 .....................................................................................

176

 Model Test Paper 9 .....................................................................................

179

 Model Test Paper 10 ...................................................................................

182

 Model Test Paper 11 ...................................................................................

185

 Model Test Paper 12 ...................................................................................

189

English Language & Comprehension

CHAPTER 1

Usage and Vocabulary 1. PARTS OF SPEECH AND RULES OF CORRECT USAGE Sentence. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought. A sentence expresses thought by naming some person, place or thing, and relating that person, place, or thing to an action or state of being. The naming part is called the subject; what we say about the subject is called the predicate. Subject Predicate Ram went on a trip. The girl is riding a horse. The object is the noun or pronoun denoting the person or thing upon which the action denoted by the verb is exerted. The cat killed a rat. (The object is rat.) Phrase. A phrase is a group of words without a subject or predicate. A phrase is used as a noun or adjective or adverb. Rule. All modifying phrases should clearly show that they modify. A bright light blind his eyes over the door. (Misplaced phrase) A bright light over the door blinded his eyes. (Correct) Clause. A clause is a group of words which contains a subject and a predicate (verb part of the sentence). An independent clause makes sense when it stands alone, coordinating conjunctions are used to join independent clauses. I know how to clean silver but I never learned how to clean copper. Dependent or subordinate clauses cannot stand alone. In the sentence Tell me who he is who he is a dependent clause.

Rule. Clauses should refer clearly and logically to the part of the sentence they modify. When finally discovered, not a sound was heard. (Misplaced clause: who or what was discovered?) Correct: When finally discovered, the boys did not make a sound.

Words may be classified into eight parts of speech according to the kind of work they do in particular contexts. If you learn the definitions and rules for each part of speech, you will master the art of using correct English.

I. NOUN A Noun is the name of a person, place or thing. Nouns are of different kinds. A common noun refers to a genegral type—girl, park, country. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place or thing and always begins with a capital letter — Asha, India Gate, Bombay. A collective noun denotes a number of persons, animals or things organized into one group — crowd, audience, flock, herd. Every noun has a number, i.e. every noun is either singular or plural. The singular means only one; the plural means more than one. Plurals of nouns may be formed by (i) adding ‘s’ to the singular, as in horses; (ii) adding ‘es’ as in benches; (iii) by changing the singular, as in baby — babies; (iv) by leaving the singular as it is, as in sheep. It is to be noted that a collective noun is a singular noun unless it refers to the individuals composing a group.

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English Language

Errors in the use of Nouns. These errors are mainly connected with the use of incorrect plurals. You must remember (a) Certain nouns which are always used as plural : e.g. shoes, socks, trousers, pyjamas, scissors, spectacles, bellows, alms, thanks, savings, riches. (b) Certain nouns have only one meaning in the singular but two in the plural e.g. Arm : upper limb Arms : Weapons The second meaning is given in the brackets in case of these plurals colours (a flag), customs (toll or tax), letters (learning), pains (exertion, care), effects (goods and chattels), manners (behaviour), numbers (poetry, verses), parts (abilities), spectacles (eyeglasses), quarters (lodgings), elements (rudiments), morals (conduct), provisions (food), grounds (reasons, dregs). (c) There are certain nouns which have one meaning in the singular but a different one in the plural : e.g., Advice—Advices (information); Air-Airs (snobbishness, proud behaviour); Content (satisfied), Contents (what is contained in a book or vessel). Iron—Irons(fetters, chains); Return—Returns (statement of account etc.), Authority—Authorities (men in power). (d) There are certain nouns which have two plural forms which differ in meaning e.g., Brother— Brothers, brethren, Cloth—Clothes, cloths; Genius— Geniuses, genii; Penny—Pennies, pence; Staff— Staffs; Staves, Die-Dies, dice. (e) The plurals of compound nouns are formed by adding ‘s’ to the principal word. Brother-inlaw—Brothers-in-law; Son-in-law—Sons-in-law; Passer-by— Passers-by; Camp-follower—Campfollowers; Major-general —Major-generals; Commander-in-chief—Commanders-in-chief.

II. ARTICLE There are three articles in English — a, an, and the. A and an are called indefinite articles, and the is called the definite article. (i) Read 1. Rajesh saw a parrot in a cage. 2. Sulekha bought an apple from a shop.

Note that each of the common nouns in the sentences, parrot, cage, apple, shop, has an article introducing it. The indefinite articles also introduce collective nouns a crowd, an army, a team and an orchard.

(ii) Read 1. The parrot escaped from the cage. 2. The boy ate the apple.

The common nouns in these sentences have the definite article introducing them the parrot, the apple, the cage, the boy. The indefinite article a or an merely mentions something about a common noun. An indefinite article does not specify a common noun. The definite article the, on the other hand, specifies a particular common noun. (iii) It may be noted that a or an is used before countable nouns. Uncountable nouns (e.g. water, soil, milk, salt) do not take a or an with them. (iv) Articles function like adjectives. The indefinite article a or an may be considered to be abbreviations of the adjective one. In the same way, the definite article the takes the place of the demonstrative adjectives this, these, that and those. Read 1. 1 have one pen and one book. 2. I have a pen and a book.

Note how the indefinite article replaces the adjective one. Read 1. Put this table in that room. 2. These letters are to be posted today. 3. Those trees are to be cut down tomorrow.

If the listener knows which table, letters and trees are being referred to, the sentences can be expressed in the following manner: 1. Put the table in that room. 2. The letters are to be posted today. 3. The trees are to be cut down tomorrow.

Note how the definite article the replaces the demonstrative adjectives this, that, these and those. The definite article specifies the common nouns in the sentences, just as the demonstrative adjectives do. Uses of the Indefinite article ‘a’. (i) With singular common nouns beginning with consonants : Read the following list of words :— a bus, a car, a dog, a fox, a goat, a hut, a javelin, a key, a library, a monkey, a number, a peacock, a quilt, a raft, a safe, a tailor, a valley, a wicket, a yak, a zebra.

(ii) With vowel letters having consonantal value : Read the words —a unit, a university, a utility, a European, a euphemism, a euphony.

Usage and Vocabulary Note that these nouns begin with the vowel letters u and e, but that they do not begin with a vowel sound. In such cases, the indefinite article a is used. (iii) With one : Read these word-groups — a one-man show, a one-rupee note, a one-eyed man

Note that the word one has a w sound as in ‘won’. In such cases, the phrase has the indefinite article a before it. Uses of the Indefinite Article ‘an’ (i) With singular nouns beginning with vowel sounds : Read the following words— an artist, an atheist, an egg, an eccentric, an idiot, an irritation, an ox, an obstacle, an umbrella, an ultimatum

Note that all these nouns begin with the vowel letters, a, e, i, o and u, which stand for vowel sound. Singular common nouns beginning with vowel sounds have the indefinite article an before them (ii) With words beginning with silent h : Read these words and phrases — an hour, on honest man, an heir to a fortune, an honour to his school.

Note that in the words — hour, honest, heir and honour— the h is not pronounced. In such cases, the words, when they need an indefinite article, have an before them.

Uses of the Definite article ‘the’ (i) With a noun made definite by a phrase or clause: Read1. Gopal bought the book his teacher had asked him to buy. 2. Did you see the elephant which killed its mahout?

Note that in all these sentences the definite article refers to a noun which is made particular by a phrase or clause. The book was the one his teacher had recommended and the elephant was the one that had killed its mahout. (ii) With a noun already mentioned : Read —

2.

1. A man walked down the village road. From his clothes everybody knew that the man was from a strange country. The lorry struck a tree; you can still see the huge scars on the tree.

When first mentioned, the nouns ‘man’ and ‘tree’ have a before them. When the nouns are mentioned

5

again, they have become definite and have the before them. (iii) With singular nouns representing a class of objects Read— 1. The elephant is the largest mammal living on land. 2. The peacock is said to be a very vain bird. 3. The earthworm helps farmers.

Note that the common nouns — the elephant, the peacock and the earthworm — are in the singular number but each one represents its class. (iv) With names of mountain ranges, rivers, seas, plural names of countries, name of the nationals of a country as a group. Read— 1. The Yamuna is a tributary of the Ganges which originates in the Himalayas. 2. Many astronauts have splashed down in the Pacific Ocean. 3. The United States of America often has grain surpluses. 4. The Germans are an industrious lot. 5. The ‘Harijan’ was a periodical founded by Gandhiji.

Note that proper nouns like the names of rivers, mountains, seas and newspapers have the definite article before them. (v) With nouns that are unique Read— 1. The earth belongs to the solar system. 2. The moon may have been a part of the earth. 3. Our school is in the east of Delhi.

Note that in these sentences all the nouns with the definite article before them are unique. We know of only one earth, of one moon, of only one direction known as east. (vi) With the superlative degree of adjectives Read1. Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world. 2. Sudhir is the best student in our class. 3. Ramesh, the boldest among them, saved the drowning boy.

Note the use of the definite article in ‘the tallest’, ‘the best’, and ‘the boldest’. (vii) With adjectives representing a class of persons : Read— 1. It is very unfair that the rich should live in luxury and the poor do not have enough food to eat. 2. The strong should always protect the weak. 3. The old and the young should understand each other.

Note that the adjectives rich, poor, strong weak, old and young are used as nouns in the sentences. In such cases, where adjectives are used as nouns, and

6

English Language

represent a class of persons, they should have the definite article before them. (viii) The is sometimes used as an adverb with comparatives — The richer he gets, the greedier he becomes.

The Omission of Articles (i) Omit the article when using a noun in the general sense, e.g., Man is a mammal. (ii) Do not use an article with abstract nouns; unless the abstract noun is restricted to a particular person or thing e.g. The honesty of the old servant was praiseworthy. (iii) Do not use an article with proper nouns; unless the proper noun is used as a common noun, e.g. Kalidasa is the Shakespeare of India. (iv) No article is used with material nouns when they are used in a general sense; e.g. Water is the source of all life. But when particularised, they take the definite article the with them The water of the Ganges is exceptionally white in colour. (v) No article is used before plural nouns used to denote a class e.g. Children are usually naughty. (iv) The names of meals and diseases do not take any article with them, e.g., dinner, fever, plague. (Exceptions the measles, the mumps). (vii) With languages and branches of knowledge no article is used English, Hindi, Mathematics. viii) No article is used before the names of days, months, and seasons, e.g. Sunday is a holiday. ‘If winter comes can spring be far behind’? (ix) No article is used before a common noun used in the vocative case; e.g. Brother, I will help you. (x) When a noun indicates rank, title, occupation, etc. and is used just like an adjective, the article may be omitted, e.g. Lord Byron, King Akbar, General Kaul, Dr. Seth. (xi) The article is omitted before a title used in apposition to a proper noun or as the complement of a verb Edward King of England. (xii) In many verbal and prepositional phrases, the article is omitted to achieve consciousness, e.g., to give ear, to turn tail. (xiii) Omit articles in prepositional phrases: ‘on land’, ‘at sea’, ‘out of doors’, etc.

III. PRONOUN A Pronoun is used in the place of a noun. The noun for which a pronoun is used is called the antecedent. There are several kinds of pronouns. (i) A Personal pronoun denotes a “person”. I, me, we, us are first person pronouns. You is second person pronoun. He, him, she, her, it, they them are third person pronouns. (ii) Possessive pronouns indicate the possessor : mine, ours (first person); you,; yours (second person); his, hers, theirs (third person). (iii) Emphasising pronouns serve to emphasise the antecedent and are formed by adding self or selves to a personal pronoun; as in “he himself will go.” (iv) Reflexive pronouns are also formed by adding self or selves to personal pronouns, but they are used in the object of a verb or after prepositions and denote the same person or thing as the subject she hurt herself (v) A demonstrative pronoun is used in the place of a noun and points out the noun. Examples are this, that, those, these. (vi) An interrogative pronoun is used in asking questions, e.g. who, whom, whose, which, what. (vii) A relative pronoun serves to join two clauses, and refers to some noun or pronoun which precedes it; e.g.: The player who is batting, is Gavaskar. Other relative pronouns are whom, whose, which, that, what. (viii) An indefinite pronoun refers to any number of persons or objects. Singular indefinite pronouns are anybody, everybody, each, everyone, nobody, none, someone, etc. Plural indefinite pronouns are all, many, any, several, some. (Note that if the singular form is used as a subject the verb must be singular — Everyone of them sings.) (ix) A reciprocal pronoun is used when referring to mutual relations, e.g., each other, one another.

Case and its proper usage The case of a noun or a pronoun indicates its relationship to other parts of a sentence. In general, pronouns have three cases nominative, objective, and possessive. The table below shows the form a pronoun may take in each case. Nominative case. Personal pronouns such as I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who, whoever are in the

Usage and Vocabulary

7

PARTS OF SPEECH AND RULES OF CORRECT USAGE I

you

Objective

me

you

Possessive

my mine

your yhours

Nominative

he she it him her

we

they

who

us

them

whoever whom whomever

her/hers our his/his its

their ours

whose heirs

nominative case and are used when the pronoun is the subject of the verb—“He and they studied in the same school’. Objective case. The pronoun forms of the objective case are me, her him, them, whomever. This form is used to indicate the object of a verb or preposition — Give the book to me, or to indicate the object when the verb is omitted “Manu could play guitar better than him”. In the possessive case, pronouns are my, mine, our; ours, you,; yours, he,; hers, his, its, their; theirs, those. This case is used before nouns to determine relationship — That was his car : in gerund phrases– ‘My disappearing caused much confusion”; or independently as subjects, objects and complements or verbs — “Whose is this ?“, “These are some clothes of mine Errors in the use of Pronouns. Rules to remember for correct writing are as follows 1. A pronoun must be in the same person, number and gender as its antecedent (the noun it stands for), but its case depends upon its own sentence

4. After such and same, as is generally used as a relative pronoun: This is the same mistake as you made last time.

5. Each, every, everybody, anybody, nobody, either; neither; should always be treated as singular. 6. Either and neither are always used of two persons or things; none is used for more than two. 7. Each other is used for two, one another for more than two. 8. When two or more singular nouns are joined by either or neither.....nor, the pronoun is generally singular Either Kamla or Vimla has neglected her duty.

9. When a plural noun and a singular noun are joined by or, nor, the pronoun must be in agreement with the nearest previous noun: Either he or his servants have murdered their neighbour.

10. When two singular nouns joined by and are preceded by each or every, the pronoun must be singular Every student and every teacher was in his place.

1. This is the man whom you are seeking. (not who) 2. Punish me who is alone guilty. (not whom) 3. I am not one of those who find fault with everyone they meet. (not I meet)

11. The order of pronouns in a sentence should be : 2nd person, 3rd person, 1st person

2. The object form of the pronoun (me, him, her, us, them) must be used : (i) when it is the object of a preposition, (ii) when it is placed after the verb ‘to be’, and (iii) when it is placed after the adjectives like, unlike, or near

12. If two or more singular subjects are joined by and, the pronoun the plural number must be used in the following order

1. Between you and me George is a dunce. (not I) 2. There is enough room for you and him. (not he) 3. They invited John and me to tea. (not I)

3. A relative pronoun should be placed as near its antecedent as possible You are the man who has been chosen.

You, he and I should work together. (But in the plural we comes before they.)

He and I have done our duty. (1st person) You and he have done your duty. (2nd person)

13. The case of a pronoun following than and as is determined by mentally supplying the verb 1. You are stronger than he (is). (not him) 2. He is taller than I (am). (not me) 3. We proved braver than they (did). (not them)

14. Who is used for persons only. Whose is used in speaking of persons, but sometimes of things

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English Language

without life. Which is used for animals and inanimate things. That is often used for who, whom, which but never for whose. It is applied both to persons and things; that is now used instead of who, whom, which: (a) After a superlative : He is the tallest man that I ever saw. (not whom) (b) After the words all, some, only, none, any, it is, there is: It is the same girl that he wants to marry. (not whom) (c) After the Interrogative pronouns who, what: Who are you that should order me thus? (not who) (d) After two antecedents one denoting a person and the other an animal or a thing: The knight and the horse that entered the place were killed. (not who or which) 15. What refers to things only. The antecedent to what is generally suppressed : What is done cannot be undone. (that which)

IV. ADJECTIVE An Adjective describes or modifies a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the question which one ? or what kind ? or how many ? Some important rules about Adjectives and Errors to Avoid 1. Adjectives change form according to the degree of comparison. There are three degrees of comparison (a) The positive degree which states the quality of an object; (b) The comparative degree which compares two objects; (c) The superlative degree which compares three or more things. Below are some adjectives formed in the regular way. Positive easy pretty

Comparative Superlatives easier, less easy easiest prettier, less pretty prettiest

Note. Do not use two forms together~ Incorrect: She is the most prettiest. Correct: She is the prettiest.

Some adjectives are not formed in the regular way. These irregular forms must be memorised. Some of the common irregular forms are given below

Positive bad good little far (distance) many, much

Comparative worse better less farther more

Superlatives worst best least farthest most

2. Adjectives can be used in two ways: (a) Attributively, i.e. as an epithet before the noun — This is a dull book. (b) Predicatively, i.e. when it qualifies its noun or pronoun in directly — through the verb or predicate going before, as in ‘Asha looked happy” or “The man is intelligent.” 3. Comparatives such as senior; inferior,; prior; junior; superior are followed by to and not than. This boy is senior to him. (not than)

4. Some adjectives represent the highest degree and cannot be used in the comparative or superlative degree. Examples are unique, extreme, ideal, perfect, entire, impossible, complete, round, empty. This book is most unique. (Incorrect) This book is unique. (Correct)

5. Other must not be used after superlatives He is the brightest of all other students. (Omit other) 6. The superlative with est is never used after the articles a or an. When used after the article the, it involves comparison with other things of the kind mentioned after the article. The superlative formed by the use of ‘most’ however, may come after the article a or an: This was a most daring robbery. 7. As.......as is usually used with positive statements so...as is used With negative ones 1. She is as accurate as any other typist. 2. She is not so accurate as the other typists.

8. Some is used in an affirmative sentence, any in a negative sentence. 9. Few means not many; a few means some at least; the few the whole number, however few. These adjectives denote countable numbers and not quantity, e.g. a few mangoes, but not a few sand. 10. Little, a little, the little. All these words denote quantity. Little should be distinguished from few, which is used for number. Little not much. A little means at least some. The little means the amount, though very little. 11. Much means ‘a large quantity of’ and is used

Usage and Vocabulary with uncountable. Many means‘a large number of’ and is used with the plural of countables. 12. Each means two or more than two things, taken one by one. Every means all of a number of things (more than two) taken individually. 13. Later and latest denote time; latter and last denote position. 14. Further is the comparative degree of fore and denotes something additional. Farther is the comparative of far and means a greater distance. 15. Nearest denotes distance: next denotes position. 16. Elder and eldest are applied only to persons. They are now confined to members of the same family. Older and oldest are applied to things as well as to persons and the age. 17. In certain phrases the adjectives always come after the noun: the body politic; heir apparent; things temporal; things eternal; a fiend incarnate; point blank; the sum total.

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being. There are three major types of verbs. They are transitive, intransitive and auxiliary. Transitive verbs denote action performed directly upon an object. Asha closed the door. Intransitive verbs show action and do not take a direct object. The sun shines. Auxiliary verbs are not used alone, but help another verb or participle to form a verb phrase. Rule. Every verb can change its form according to five categories— person, tense, mood, voice, number. I. Person The verb undergoes certain changes of form to indicate whether the subject of the verb is the thing speaking (first person), the thing spoken to (second person), or the thing spoken of (third person). I go; we go. (First person, singular and plural) You go. (Second person, singular and plural) He goes; They go. (Third person, singular and plural).

V. VERB (TENSES, SEQUENCE OF TENSES, MOOD, SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT) A Verb is a word which shows action or state of

II. Tense : Tense indicates the time or when the verb occurs. The tenses are present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect.

Forms of Verbs : A Select List STRONG VERBS* Present Tense Plural Plura abide arise awake bear (carry) bear (produce) beat become begin behold bid bind bit

Past Tense Singular & Plura abode arose awoke bore bore beat became began beheld bade (also bid) bound bit

Past Participle Singular & Plura abode arisen awoke borne born beaten become begun beheld bidden bound bitten (also bit)

Present Participle Singular & Plura abiding arising awaking bearing bearing beating becoming beginning beholding bidding binding biting

Present Tense Singular Plura abides arises awakes bears bears beats becomes begins beholds bids binds bites

* Strong verbs (or irregular verbs) are those that form their past tense by change of vowel-sound, and without the addition of a suffix. The past participle can sometimes be made by adding -en, -n, or ne. Weak verbs are those that form the past tense and past participle by adding -ed, -d, or t, with or without vowel change.

10

English Language Present Tense Plural Plura

Past Tense Singular & Plura

bleed blow break breed chide choose cling come dig draw drink

bled blew broke bred chid chose clung came dug drew drank

drive eat fall feed fight find fling fly forbear forbid forget forsake freeze get give go grind grow hide hold know lead lie (recline) meet

drove ate fell fed fought found flung flew forbore forbade forgot forsook froze got gave went ground grew hid held knew led lay met

Past Participle Singular & Plura bled blown broken bred chidden chosen clung come dug drawn drunk drunken (adj.) driven eaten fallen fed fought found flung flown forborne forbidden forgot/forgotten forsaken frozen got (also gotten)· given gone ground grown hidden held known led lain met

Present Participle Singular & Plura bleeding blowing breaking breeding chiding choosing clinging coming digging drawing drinking

Present Tense Singular Plura bleeds blows breaks breeds chides chooses clings comes digs draws drinks

driving eating falling feeding fighting finding flinging flying forbearing forbidding forgetting forsaking freezing getting giving going grinding growing hiding holding knowing leading lying meeting

drives eats falls feeds fights finds flings flies forbears forbids forgets forsakes freezes gets gives goes grinds grows hides holds knows leads lies meets

Usage and Vocabulary Present Tense Plural Plura

Past Tense Singular & Plura

ride ring rise run see shake shine shoot shrink sing sink sit slay slide sling speak speed spin spring stand steal sting stick stride

rode rang rose ran saw shook shone shot shrank sang sank sat slew slid slung spoke sped span sprang stood stole stung stuck strode

strike string strive swear swim swing take tear thrive throw tread

struck strung strove swore swam swung took tore throve threw trod

Past Participle Singular & Plura ridden rung risen run seen shaken shone shot shrunk/shrunken sung sunk sat slain slid slung spoken sped spun sprung stood stolen stung stuck strid stridden (rarely used) struck, stricken strung striven sworn swum swung taken torn thriven thrown trod/trodden

11

Present Participle Singular & Plura riding ringing rising running seeing shaking shining shooting shrinking singing sinking sitting slaying sliding slinging speaking speeding spinning springing standing stealing stinging sticking striding

Present Tense Singular Plura rides rings rises runs sees shakes shines shoots shrinks sings sinks sits slays slides slings speaks speeds spins springs stands steals stings sticks strides

striking stringing striving swearing swimming swinging taking tearing thriving throwing treading

strikes strings strives swears swims swings takes tears thrives throws treads