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HISTORY
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PART–I ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY 1. THE PREHISTORIC PERIOD .......................................................................3 Stone Age, Prehistoric Rock Art, Chalcolithic Farming Cultures of Indian Subcontinent, Religious Beliefs, Trade and Commerce, Technology, Copper Hoard Culture, Archaeological Discoveries
2. HARAPPAN CIVILISATION ..........................................................................9 Area, Town Planning, Social and Political System, Religion, Trade and Commerce, Transport and Travel, Craft Production, Industries & Technology, Arts, Agriculture, Script and Language, Evidences of Domesticated & wild Animals, Burial Practices, Main Regions, Major Sites, Decline 16
3. THE VEDIC CIVILISATION ........................................................................18 Time Period, Vedic Literature, Epics, Religion, Rigvedic Gods, Important Rituals, Importance of Cow, The State & the Political Setup, Law & Punishment, Administration, Social Organisation, Ashramas, Position of Women, Types of Marriage, Gotra, Education, Food Habits, Economic Life, Pottery, Science and Technology Indian Philosophy, Six System of Philosophy, Causes of New Movements
4. RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS (6TH CENTURY B.C.) ................................30 Buddhism, The Profounders, Buddhist Philosophy, Buddhist Councils, Schism in Buddhism, Contribution to Society, Jainism, Vardhman Mahavira, Jaina Philosophy, Jaina Councils
5. THE RISE OF THE MAGADHA KINGDOM (600 TO 300 BC) ..............................................................................................34 Magadhan Ascendancy, Haryanka Dynasty, Sisunaga Dynasty, Nanda Dynasty, Political Changes, Foreign Invasion
6. THE MAURYAN EMPIRE (325 BC -183 BC) .............................................39 Secular Literary Sources, Religious Literary Sources, Archaeological Sources, Chandragupta Maurya (321297 BC), Bindusara (297-272 BC) , Asoka (268-232 BC), Sudarshana Lake , Asoka’s Dhamma, Mauryan Administration, City Administration, Village administration, Army, Society and Culture, Economy, Art and Architecture, Later Mauryas (232-184 BC), Causes of Decline
7. POST-MAURYAN (200 BC – 300 AD) ..........................................................46 Sungas (184 – 75 BC), Kanvas (75 – 28 BC), Ganasanghas, Meghavahanas of Kalinga, Foreign Invasions, Indo-Greeks or Yavanas (2nd cent. BC), Sakas (1st Cent. BC to 4th Cent. AD), Parthians (1st cent. BC – 1st cent. AD), Kushanas (1st cent. AD – 3rd cent. AD), Administration, Economic Condition, Relations with the outside world,, Social Conditions, Types of marriages, Family Life, Succession of wealth, Religions, Language and Literature, Art and Architecture, Sculpture, Science and Technology
8. THE SANGAM AGE .......................................................................................54 Early History, Sangam Literature, Epics, The Pandayas (Emblem - Fish), Cholas (Emblem - Tiger), Cheras (Emblem - Bow), Sangam Administration, Sources
9. GUPTA EMPIRE (320-550 AD) .....................................................................58 Literary Evidence, The Gupta Dynasty, Chandragupta I, Samudra Gupta, Chandragupta II, Kumargupta I, Skandagupta, Administration, Social Developments, Religious Developments, Economy, Art, Ajanta Paintings Kalidas, Astronomy, Decline of the Guptas, Later Guptas, Huns
10. POST-GUPTA PERIOD (550-750 AD) ..........................................................62 Maukharis, Maitrakas, Pushyabhutis, Harshavardhana (606-647 AD), Hieun Tsang, Deccan and South India, Pallavas (560-903 AD), Chalukyas (543-755 AD), Political History, Administration, Religion, Chalukya Art Cholas (9th -12th Century), Administration, Chola art, Northern India, Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas (755 – 975 A. D. ), Tripartite Struggle, Art and Architecture
11. INDIA DURING 300 – 700 A. D. ....................................................................68 Administrative System, Economic Condition, Society, Marriage Practices, Education, Indian Religions, Moderate Saiva Sects, Extreme Saiva Sects, Saivism in South India, Language and Literature, Secular, Tamil Literature, Foreign Accounts, Art and Architecture, Stupas, Chaityas, Vihara Construction, Bahmanical and Jaina Caves, Sculptures, Paintings, Science and Technology, Astronomy, Medicine, Metallurgy
PART–II MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY 12. EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA ...........................................................................83 Sources, Rajput Dynasties of Rajasthan and Central India, Tri-Partie Struggle, Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas Regional Kingdoms, Gahadavalas, Chandellas, Paramaras, Chauhans, Kalachuris, Chalukyas/Solankis, Various Kamarupa, Senas, Shailodbhava, Kesaris and Gangas, Political History of South India (750-1200 AD), Chola Administration, Constitution of Assemblies, Fuctions of Assemblies, Feudalism, Chalukyas of Kalyani, Eastern Chalukyas, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Yadavas of Devagiri, Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra, Pandyas, Advent of Islam, Caliphs, Causes for Defeat by Muslims
13. DELHI SULTANATE ......................................................................................96 Slave Dynasty (1206 – 90), Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320), Administrative Reforms, Amir Khusro, Malik Kafur’s Campaigns in South India, Tughluqs Dynasty (1320-1414), Timur Invasions (1398-99 AD), Sayyids (141451), Lodis (1451-1526)
14. VIJAYANAGAR & BAHAMANI EMPIRE ...............................................104 Vijaynagar Empire (1336 - 1565), Conflict under Deva Rayas, Decline and Aravidu Dynasty, Famous Travellers to Vijayanagar Kingdom, Vijaynagar Local Government, Vijaynagar Society, Vijaynagar Economy, Vijaynagar Architecture, Bahmani Kingdom (1346 – 1518), Administration
15. ADMINISTRATION & ECONOMY (1200 – 1526)................................... 110 Economy, Agriculture, Urban Economy, Trade & Commerce, Monetary System, Society , Position of Women
16. SOCIETY, CULTURE & RELIGION (1200 – 1526) ................................. 115 Art and Architecture, Some Landmarks, Literature , Music, Bhakti Movement, Adi Sankaracharya, Shankaradeva, Ramanuja, Madhavacharya, Ramananda, Vallabhacharya, Hindu Religious Ideas, Vithoba Cult Sikhism, Dadu Dayal, Sufism
17. REGIONAL CENTRES OF POWER .........................................................122 Kamarupa, Gujarat, Malwa, Mewar, Sharqis, Kashmir, Babur (1484-1530)
18. MUGHAL EMPIRE ......................................................................................126 Humayun (1530-40 & 1555-56), Sur Empire(1540-55), Sur Administration, Revenue System, Akbar (15561605), Akbar’s conquests, Jahangir (1605-27), Shahjahan (1628-58), Dara Shukoh, Aurangzeb (1658-1707), Revolts under Aurangzeb, Later Mughals, Components of Administration
19. MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION & ECONOMY .......................................134 Organization of the Government, Mansabdari System, Addition by Jahangir, Mughal Economy, Peasants, Crop Sharing, Other Occupations, Trade & Commerce, Currency, Mughal Architecture
20. MUGHAL SOCIETY, CULTURE & RELIGION .....................................138 Building of Mausoleums, Building of Masjids, Regional Architecture, Sur Architecture, Literature of Mughal Period, Nine Gems of Akbar’s Court, Mughal Religious Policy, Tenets of Din-i-llahi (1582), Jahangir’s Religious Policy, Shahjahan’s Religious Policy, Aurangzeb’s Religious Policy
21. THE MARATHA AGE ..................................................................................146 Shivaji (1630 - 80), Successors of Shivaji, Peshwas (1713-1818), Shivaji’s Administration
PART–III MODERN INDIAN HISTORY 22. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY’S INDIA .........................................................152 Social Condition, Economic Condition, Political Condition, Nadir Shah, Ahmad Shah Abdali, Marathas,
Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad, Carnatic, Mysore, Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan, Travancore, Marwar, Amer, Sikhs, Ranjit Singh, Assam, Jats, Subsidiary Alliance, Portuguese
23. ADVENT OF THE EUROPEANS & ASCENDANCE OF THE BRITISH ........................................................159 Establishment of Factories, Beginning of Political Domination of British, Ascendance of the British, AngloFrench or Carnatic Wars, British in Bengal, Bengal Battles, Battle of Buxar (1764), Anglo Mysore Wars, Anglo Sikh Wars, Anglo-Burmese Wars, Anglo-Afghan Wars, Establishers of the British Paramountcy, Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt’s India Act of 1784, The Charter Act of 1793
24. ADMINISTRATION & ECONOMY UNDER THE COMPANY RULE (1757-1857) .....................................................................................................167 The Charter Act of 1813, The Charter Act of 1833, The Charter Act of 1853, Economic & Commercial Policy Phases of Economic Policy in India, Drain of Wealth Theory, Constituents of the Drain, Land Revenue Systems Other important facts, Wahabi Movement
25. EARLY UPRISING , REVOLT OF 1857 & BRITISH POLICIES AFTER 1857 .............................................................171 Kuka Movement Santhal Movement Early Uprisings Against British Rule Non-tribal Movements Politico-religious Movements Revolt of 1857 Causes of the Revolt Economic Grievances Beginning of the revolt Causes of Failure Nature of the Revolt Chronology of the Revolt Impact of the Revolt The Govt of India Act, 1858 The Indian Council Act, 1861 The Indian Council Act, 1892 Other important facts Economic Policies Famines in India Economic Exploitation Other Administrative steps
171 171 172 173 174 174 174 175 175 176 176 176 177 177 177 177 177 178 179 179 179
26. THE INDIAN RENAISSANCE ...................................................................180 Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) Devendranath Tagore Ram Krishna Paramhansa & Swami Vivekanand
181 182 182
Social ideas Religious ideas Nationalism Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission I. C. Vidyasagar (1820-1891) Bankim Chandra Theosophical Society Young Bengal Movement Gopal Hari Deshmukh Nair Movement Self-Respect Movement Justice Movement Nadar Movement Ezhava Movement Mahar Movement B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956) Efforts to abolish the system of Child Marriage Achievements
183 183 183 183 183 183 184 184 184 184 184 185 185 185 185 185 188 188
27. INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS .............................................................190 Indian National Congress (1885) Methods of Work Indian National Congress Moderates (1885-1905) Extremists Nationalist (1906-18) Congress Sessions Conflict and Surat Split Some important facts
191 191 192 192 192 196 196 196
28. RISE OF INDIAN NATIONALISM ............................................................196 Partition of Bengal Swadeshi Movement Most Important Achievement Achievements of the Movement Aurbindo Ghosh (1872-1950) Extrimist Nationalist Phase Demands of Moderates and Extremists The Extremists Muslims in Nationalist Movement Muslim League Home Rule League in India Congress-League Pact of 1916
198 199 200 200 201 201 202 203 204 204 205 206
29. PEASANT & TRADE UNION MOVEMENTS .........................................206 Indigo Agitation of Bengal (1859-60)
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Pabna Movement or Peasant Unrest in East Bengal (1872-76) Deccan Riots (1875) Champaran Satyagraha (1917) Khaira Satyagraha (1918) Moplah Rebellion (1921) Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) Emergence of Class-conscious Peasant Organisations Trade Union Movement Development of Education
207 208 208 208 208 209 209 209 211
30. DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION & THE INDIAN PRESS .................................................................................... 211 Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy and Macualay’s Minutes Sir Charles Wood Despatch (1854) The Hunter Education Commission (1882-83) The Raleigh Commission (1902) The Indian Universities Act (1904) Sadler Commission (1917-19) Wardha Scheme Sargeant Plan of Education (1944) The Indian Press Newspapers and Journal Literatures Satyagraha
211 211 212 212 212 212 212 212 212 213 215 216
31. GANDHIAN ERA (1917-1947) .....................................................................216 Non-violence Constructive Programmes Champaran Satyagraha Kheda Satyagraha Ahmadabad Mill Satyagraha Rowlatt Act Jaliyanwala Bagh Masscre Khilafat Movement Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) Spread of NCM Swaraj Party Muddiman Committee (1924) Butler Committee (1927) Nehru Report (1928) The Fourteen Points (1929) Nationalist Muslim Party (1929) Extrimism during this period The 2nd Phase of Revolutionary Terrorism
217 218 218 218 218 219 219 220 221 221 222 222 222 222 222 223 223 224
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) Hindustan Republican Army (HRA) Miscellaneous Famous Conspiracy Cases Simon Commission Nehru Report Irwin Offer of 1929 Lahore Session (Dec 1929) Towards Quit India Movement Provincial Elections under the GoI Act 1935 Individual Satyagraha August Offer, 1940 Cripps Mission: March-April 1942 Quit India Movement Public Participation Muslim League
224 224 224 225 226 226 226 226 229 229 229 229 230 230 230 232
32. TOWARDS FREEDOM ................................................................................232 Subhas Chandra Bose Communist Movement Rajagopalachari Formula (1945) Shimla Conference (June-July 1945) Cabinet Mission (March-June 1946) Interim government Naval Mutiny of 1946 Power Change in England Attlee’s Announcement Mountbatten Plan (3rd June Plan) Important Acts MErger of Princely States
232 233 233 234 234 235 235 235 236 236 236 237
33. GOVERNOR GENERALS AND VICEROYS ...........................................238 The Governors of Bengal Governor-Generals (1772-1857) Ancient India Medieval India
239 239 244 244
34. SOME IMPORTANT INFORMATIONS ...................................................244 Modern India c. BC 550-c. AD 560 Century Rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire 1339-1526 Baridi Shahs of Bidar 1492-1619 Adilshahis of Bijapur 1490-1686 Nizamshahis of Ahmadnagar 1490-1636 Qutubshahis of Golconda 1518-1687 (Sultanate begins 1512)
245 247 248 248 248 248 249
Faruqi Sultans of Khandesh 1382-1601 (Sultanate begins 1370) Rulers of India 1526-1858 Nawabs of Avadh 1724-1856 Nawabs of Arcot 1707-1858 Nawabs of Bengal 1703-1770 Nizams of Hyderbad 1724-1858 (Rule ends 1948) The lineage of Haidar Ali of Mysore 1761-1799 Chhatrapati Bhonsles to 1707 Maratha Peshwas 1714-1818 Classical Writers in Indian Languages Important Foreign Travellers/Envoys
249 249 249 250 250 250 250 250 250 251 253
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS .........................................................................255
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The prehistoric period in the history of mankind can '(#" roughly be dated from 200000 BC to about 3500-2500 The age when the prehistoric man began to use stones BC, when the first civilisations began to take shape. for utilitarian purpose is termed as the Stone Age. On The first modern human beings or the Homo sapiens the basis of the specialization of the stone tools, which set foot on the Indian subcontinent anywhere between were made during that time the Stone Age is divided 200000 BC and 40000 BC and they soon spread intog three broad divisions — throughout a large part of the subcontinent, including 1. Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age (from peninsular India. unknown till 8000 BC), Man is said to have appeared on the earth in the early 2. Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age (8000 BCPleistocene i.e. between 2,000,000 and 10,000 years 4000 BC) and before the present. 3. Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age (4000 BC It is now well established that the ear- liest human fossils 2500 BC) found in Africa dates back to about 42 lakhs years. These specimens show that the earliest human beings were $/:3=:7B67153 shorter in height and had a smaller brain. The humans Paleolithic Culture of India developed in the Pleistocene evolved over a period of these 42 lakhs years and the period of the ice-age. present form reached about 50,000 years ago. Animal remains found in the Belan Valley in Mirzapur The regular use of tools, beginning 26 lakhs years ago district in Uttar Pradesh show that goats, sheep and cattle in east Africa is well attested and accompanies many were exploited in Paleolithic age. earlier and later hominid fossils. The human beings living in the Paleolithic Age were Except the solitary find of a hominid fossil from essentially food gatherers and depended on nature for Hathnaura in the Narmada Valley, no early human fossils food. The art of hunting and stalking wild animals have been found in India, due to the climatic conditions. individually and later in groups led to these people According to the estimation of experts cranial capacity making stone weapons and tools. of this fossil is equal to that of homo erectus. Crudely carved out stones were used in hunting, but as The various strata of the Shivalik hills containing stone the size of the groups began to increase and there was tools have been dated between 20 lakhs years and 12 need for more food, these people began to make lakhs years. Another scientific date for the early stone “specialized tools” by flaking stones, which were tools came from the archaeological site of Bori in Pune pointed on one end. These kind of tools were generally district of Maharashtra which is 13 lakhs and 80000 used to kill small animals and for tearing flesh from the years old.
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HISTORY
carcass of the hunted animals. The basic technique of making these crude tools was by taking a stone and flaking its sides with a heavier stone. These tools were characteristic of the Paleolithic Age and were very rough. Human beings had come to make and use fire by this time. Based on tool technology the Palaeolithic Age in India is divided into three phases.These phases are:
terms of available raw materials as well as shapes and sizes. Some of the most important sites of Middle Palaeolithic period are Bhimbetka, Nevasa, Pushkar, Rohiri hills of upper Sind, and Samnapur on Narmada.
The Middle Palaeolithic Culture slowly evolved into the Upper Palaeolithic Culture. From the scientific dates available from the various sites one may safely say that Upper Palaeolithic Culture lasted from about 40,000 ! B.C to 10,000 B.C. Dates available from various sites indicat that the Lower Upper Palaeolithic Culture is characterised by use of blades and burins. It appears that the concept of Palaeolithic culture or the early Stone Age was quite composite tools start developing during this cultural widespread phenomenon be- tween 5,00,000 and 50,000 period. B.C.Its characteristic features - use of hand axes, One of the most remarkable discovery of the Upper cleavers and choppers. Palaeolithic period is that of a rubble built, roughly The raw materials used for making these stone tools are circular platform of about 85 cm in diameter. of various kinds of stone, like quartzite, chert and The Upper Palaeolithic tools have been found in sometimes even quartz and besalt, etc. Rajasthan, parts of the Ganga and Belan valleys, Central The Lower Palaeolithic tools have been found over a and Western India, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and large area, virtually from all over India, except the plains Karnataka. The main tool types are scrapers, points, of the Indus, Saraswati. Brahmputra and Ganga where awls, burins, borers, knives, etc. raw material in the form of stone is not available. Lower Palaeolithic sites are of several types: habitation !3A=:7B67153 Paleolithic age came to an end with the end of the Ice sites (either under rock-shelters or in the open) factory Age around 9000 B.C.An intermediate stage in Stone sites associated with sources of raw materials; sites that Age culture began in 9000 B.C, called Mesolithic Age combine elements of both these functions; and open air or Middle Stone Age. sites in any of these categories subsequently. The simple handheld stone tools were now attached to Some of the important sites of Lower Palaeolithic culture thick branches from trees with rope made from animal are Pahalgam in Kashmir, Belan valley in Allahabad skin and sinew. These tools are known as hand axes, district (Uttar Pradesh) Bhimbetka and Adamgarh in which could be flung at fast-moving animals from a Hoshangabad district, (Madhya Pradesh), 16 R and distance. Apart from hand axes, they also produced Sinsgi Talav in Nagaur district (Rajasthan), Nevasa in crude stone-tipped wooden spears, borers, and burins. Ahmadnagar district (Maharashtra),Hunsgi in Gulburga The characteristic tools of Mesolithic Age are district (in Karnataka) and the famous site of Microliths. The microlithic tools are characterised by Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu). parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of such fine material as chert, chalcedony, crystal, jasper, carnelian, agate, etc. Bagor in Rajasthan is the type site The Middle Palaeolithic Culture can be dated between of Microlith excavations. 50,000 B.C. and 40,000 B.C. or even slightly later on These Microlithic tools are generally 1 to 5 cm. long the basis of scientific dates. Its characteristic features and the types include smaller verision of upper are industries mainly based on flakes. Palaeolithic types such as points, scrapers, burins, awls, The Middle Palaeolithic tools technology is etc., besides some new tool-types like lunates, trapezes, characterized basically by the flake tool industry. The triangles, arrow- heads, of various shapes and sizes. tools are made on flakes obtained by striking them out Bhimbetka near Bhopal presents the art of painting from pebbles or cobbles. practiced by Paleolithic and Mesolithic people. It The tool types include small and medium-sized contains more than 500 painted rock shelters, distributed handaxes, cleavers and various kinds of scrapers, borers, in an area of 10 sq. km.The exact date of these paintings and knives. The tools show regional variations both in
HISTORY
is not certain, but some of the paintings are as old as 12,000 years. The prehistoric artist used natural white and red pigments in depicting the various themes, which were close to his heart and sustenance. Some of the most important and extensively studied sites of Mesolithic culutre are Bagor in Rajasthan, Langhnaj in Gujarat, Sarai Nahar Rai, Chopani Mando, Mahdaha and Damdama in Uttar Pradesh and Bhimbetka and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh. We get the evidence of the association of sheep and goat with the Mesolithic people from Bagor and Adamgarh, around sixth millennium B.C. This suggests that they may have partly adopted the settled way of life. We come to know that these communities were essentially hunters, food-gatherers and fishermen, but also practised some form of agriculture.
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Approximately 10,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene Age, climatic conditions more or less similar to those of today were established in western and southern Asia. The most fundamental advance that has affected the course of human life was the domestication of a large number of animals and plants. The present evidence suggests that in west Asia, wheat and barely were domesticated by 7000 B.C. The Neolithic Age (9000 BC-2500 BC) or the New Stone Age was the last phase of the Stone Age and is characterised by very finely flaked, small stone tools, also known as blades and burins. Neolithic (New Stone) Age began in 9000 B.C. in the world context. The only Neolithic settlement in the Indian subcontinent attributed to 7000 B.C. lies in Mehrgarh, which is situated in Baluchistan, a province of Pakistan. The archaeological sites of Kili Ghul Mohammad, Gumla, Rana Ghundai, Anjira, Mundigak, and Mehrgarh in the Kacchi plain give evidence of a date between 7000-5000 B.C. Of these Mehrgarh has been most extensively examined. The evidence shows that the habitation here began in about 7000 B.C. but in the early period no use of ceramic is seen. However, in about a 1000 years time i.e. around 6000 B.C. earthen pots and pans come in use : first handmade and then wheel-made. The beads found with burial remains show that people used beads made of lapis lazuli, carnelian, banded agate and white marine shell. A single copper bead has also been found. The occurrence of shell bangles and pendants made of mother-of-pearl indicates longdistance trade.
5 Some of the most important Neolithic sites are Gufkaral and Burzahom in Kashmir, Mahgara, Chqpani Mando and Koldihwa in Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh and Chirand in Bihar.Besides rice, evidence for barley cultivation is attested at Mahgarah. They built houses of wattle-and daub, with rammed floor. tended cow, bull, goat, sheep, and cultivated horse gram, millet and ragi. The early Neolithic settlers in the north-west in Burzahom lived in pit dwell- ings, rather than building houses over the ground settlement at Chirand in Bihar is relatively late. The Neolithic Age also saw the domestication of cattle, horses, and other farm animals. which were used for dairy and meat products. An important invention of this time was the making of the wheel. The people of Gufkaral, a Neolithic site 41 km southwest of Srinagar, practised both agriculture and domestication of animals. It is interesting that the Burzahom domestic dogs and were buried with their masters in their graves. The placing of domestic dogs in the graves of the masters do not seem to be the practice with Neolithic people in any other part of India. We have the most decisive evidence of new patterns of subsistence in south India, almost contemporary with the Harappan culture. Some of the most important sites in southern India are Kodekal, Utnur, and Andhra Pradesh: Tekkalkolta, Maski. T. Narsipur. Sangankullu, Hallur and Brahmagiri in Karnataka and Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu. $& '(#& &# &(
Some of the important rock-painting sites are Murhana Pahar in Uttar Pradesh. Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Lakha Juar in Madhya Pradesh and Kupagallu in Karnataka.
The colours used in making these drawings are deep red, green, white and, yellow.
The distribution of these rock-paintings is very wide. They have been found in Chargul in north-west Pakistan to Orissa in the east, and from the Kumaon hills is in the north to Kerala in the south.
Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite