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2020 2018 in

CHEMISTRY Significant Features of the book are as Follows: The book has been revised according to the new Syllabus and the style followed by NCERT textbooks.  Chapterwise NCERT Based Notes  Appreciable Number of Solved Numerical and Descrip ve Problems have been given sec on-wise wherever required  Chapterwise NCERT Solved Intext and Exercise Ques ons with Solu ons  Chapterwise Addi onal Important Ques ons  Chapterwise Assignment for Prac ce  Chapterwise Test Papers

11

eXam-kit in CHEMISTRY XI © by Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd. All rights reserved including those of translation into other languages. In accordance with the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise. Any such act or scanning, uploading, and or electronic sharing of any part of this book without the permission of the publisher constitutes unlawful piracy and theft of the copyright holder’s intellectual property. If you would like to use material from the book (other than for review purposes), prior written permission must be obtained from the publishers.

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This book is dedicated to my father Sh. Mitra Sen Sharma

With Immense Love and Regards Aim not for what you are, But what you could be, Challenge yourself, Release your hidden potential.

CONTENTS Pages Syllabus

(xi–xiv)

1. Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

...

1

2. Structure of Atom

...

45

3. Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

...

98

4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

...

131

5. States of Matter: Gases, Liquids and Solids

...

188

6. Chemical Thermodynamics

...

259

7. Equilibrium

...

294

8. Redox Reactions

...

367

9. Hydrogen

...

408

10. The s-Block Elements

...

439

11. The p-Block Elements

...

471

12. Organic Chemistry : Some Basic Principles and Techniques

...

537

13. Hydrocarbons

...

600

14. Environmental Chemistry

...

650

Logarithms Tables

...

(i–iv)

( vii )

LETTER TO THE STUDENTS Dear students, In this age of nail-biting competition, it really helps to be well-equipped with the subject in order to break the ice in the competitive area. So, while the market is flooded with numerous repetitions of books which handy help your intellectuality and competency, we have endeavoured to reach out to your wider examination needs in this edition. Keeping in mind the broader comprehensive needs of the subject, we have put in our best efforts in this book. I am thankful to my better half Ms. Bindu Sharma, who is always a source of inspiration to me. Few words of thanks and love for family members who patiently accepted me absenteism and supported me for this task. I am thankful to my friends, whose interaction has always encouraged me in developing this book. Although I have taken care of and laid down all efforts to remove any discrepancy which might have crept in, yet criticism or suggestions are always solicited from your end. Thanking you in anticipation for your co-operation. Please do write to author or our publishers. Wishing for your success. —AUTHOR

( ix )

CRACKING THE EXAMINATION IN CHEMISTRY Tips and Tricks to do well in the exams. Description: Chemistry is as scoring as Maths. It will carry 70 marks. The rest 30 marks will be for the practical exam in the school. POINTS TO REMEMBER N N N N N N N

N N

N N N N N

Know your syllabus and exam structure well. You must know the division of syllabus into various units and their weightage clearly. Physical chemistry portion is very scoring. In inorganic chemistry, spend more time on s-block and p-block elements unit. Organic portion requires regular revision. Once the textbook is revised, you may go through various school examination papers. Close to the examinations, one should only practise sample papers and take mock tests. Understand your strengths and weak points. Revise the portions where you think you need improvement and further consolidate your strengths. This can make a huge difference to your final results and your confidence. Spend 10 minutes going through the question paper first and plan how you will take the exam. Attempt the questions that you know well. Two days before the exams one should relax rather than learning new topics. It is important not to keep yourself busy all night revising the entire curriculum just before the exams. Prioritize the revision of the important topics. Eat sensibly. Drink plenty of water and energy juices. Always think positive. Getting worried about how difficult the subject is and how your preparation is not up to the mark, will make the things more difficult. It’s better to complete a small project than to leave a big one half done. Commit your life, your plans, your hopes, your dreams, and your fears to God through prayer everyday. In return you will have peace and success in your life.

(x)

SYLLABUS CHEMISTRY—CLASS XI (Theory) COURSE STRUCTURE Total Periods : 160 One Paper (Theory) Unit No.

Time : 3 hours

Title

70 Marks No. of Periods

I. Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry II. Structure of Atom III. Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties IV. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure V. States of Matter: Gases and Liquids VI. Chemical Thermodynamics VII. Equilibrium VIII. Redox Reactions IX. Hydrogen X. The s-Block Elements XI. The p-Block Elements XII. Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques XIII. Hydrocarbons XIV. Environmental Chemistry Total

12 14 08 14 12 16 14 06 08 10 14 14 12 06 160

Unit I : Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

UV W

U| V| W U| V| W U| V| W

Marks

11 04 21

16

18

70 (Periods 12)

General Introduction: Importance and scope of chemistry. Nature of matter, laws of chemical combination, Dalton’s atomic theory: concept of elements, atoms and molecules. Atomic and molecular masses, mole concept and molar mass, percentage composition, empirical and molecular formula, chemical reactions, stoichiometry and calculations based on stoichiometry. Unit II : Structure of Atom

(Periods 14)

Bohr's model and its limitations, concept of shells and subshells, dual nature of matter and light, de Broglie's relationship, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, concept ( xi )

( xii ) of orbitals, quantum numbers, shapes of s, p and d orbitals, rules for filling electrons in orbitals—Aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's rule, electronic configuration of atoms, stability of half-filled and completely filled orbitals. Unit III : Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties (Periods 08) Modern periodic law and the present form of periodic table, periodic trends in properties of elements—atomic radii, ionic radii, inert gas radii, Ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, valency. Nomenclature of elements with atomic number greater than 100. Unit IV : Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

(Periods 14)

Valence electrons, ionic bond, covalent bond, bond parameters, Lewis structure, polar character of covalent bond, covalent character of ionic bond, valence bond theory, resonance, geometry of covalent molecules, VSEPR theory, concept of hybridization, involving s, p and d orbitals and shapes of some simple molecules, molecular orbital theory of homonuclear diatomic molecules(qualitative idea only), hydrogen bond. Unit V : States of Matter: Gases and Liquids

(Periods 12)

Three states of matter, intermolecular interactions, types of bonding, melting and boiling points, role of gas laws in elucidating the concept of the molecule, Boyle's law, Charles law, Gay Lussac's law, Avogadro's law, ideal behaviour, empirical derivation of gas equation, Avogadro's number, ideal gas equation. Deviation from ideal behaviour, liquefaction of gases, critical temperature, kinetic energy and molecular speeds (elementary idea) Liquid State: vapour pressure, viscosity and surface tension (qualitative idea only, no mathematical derivations) Unit VI : Chemical Thermodynamics

(Periods 16)

Concepts of System and types of systems, surroundings, work, heat, energy, extensive and intensive properties, state functions. First law of thermodynamics -internal energy and enthalpy, heat capacity and specific heat, measurement of AU and AH, Hess's law of constant heat summation, enthalpy of bond dissociation, combustion, formation, atomization, sublimation, phase transition, ionization, solution and dilution. Second law of Thermodynamics (brief introduction). Introduction of entropy as a state function, Gibb's energy change for spontaneous and non- spontaneous processes, criteria for equilibrium. Third law of thermodynamics (brief introduction). Unit VII : Equilibrium

(Periods 14)

Equilibrium in physical and chemical processes, dynamic nature of equilibrium, law of mass action, equilibrium constant, factors affecting equilibrium—Le Chatelier's principle, ionic equilibrium—ionization of acids and bases, strong and weak electrolytes, degree of ionization, ionization of poly basic acids, acid strength, concept of pH, Henderson Equation, hydrolysis of salts (elementary idea), buffer solution, solubility product, common ion effect (with illustrative examples).

( xiii ) Unit VIII : Redox Reactions

(Periods 06)

Concept of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, oxidation number, balancing redox reactions, in terms of loss and gain of electrons and change in oxidation number, applications of redox reactions. Unit IX : Hydrogen

(Periods 08)

Position of hydrogen in periodic table, occurrence, isotopes, preparation, properties and uses of hydrogen, hydrides-ionic covalent and interstitial; physical and chemical properties of water, heavy water, hydrogen peroxide—preparation, reactions and structure and use; hydrogen as a fuel. Unit X : The s-Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals)

(Periods 10)

Group 1 and Group 2 Elements General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, anomalous properties of the first element of each group, diagonal relationship, trends in the variation of properties (such as ionization enthalpy, atomic and ionic radii), trends in chemical reactivity with oxygen, water, hydrogen and halogens, uses. Preparation and Properties of Some Important Compounds Sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide and Sodium hydrogencarbonate, biological importance of sodium and potassium. Calcium oxide and Calcium carbonate and their industrial uses, biological importance of Magnesium and Calcium. Unit XI : The p-Block Elements

(Periods 14)

General Introduction to p-Block Elements Group 13 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous properties of first element of the group, Boron—physical and chemical properties, some important compounds, Borax, Boric acid, Boron Hydrides, Aluminium: Reactions with acids and alkalies, uses. Group 14 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous behaviour of first elements. Carbon-catenation, allotropic forms, physical and chemical properties; uses of some important compounds: oxides. Important compounds of Silicon and a few uses: Silicon Tetrachloride, Silicones, Silicates and Zeolites, their uses. Unit XII : Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles and Techniques (Periods 14) General introduction, methods of purification, qualitative and quantitative analysis, classification and IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds. Electronic displacements in a covalent bond: inductive effect, electromeric effect, resonance and hyper conjugation. Homolytic and heterolytic fission of a covalent bond: free radicals, carbocations, carbanions, electrophiles and nucleophiles, types of organic reactions.

( xiv ) Unit XIII : Hydrocarbons

(Periods 12)

Classification of Hydrocarbons Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Alkanes—Nomenclature, isomerism, conformation (ethane only), physical properties, chemical reactions including free radical mechanism of halogenation, combustion and pyrolysis. Alkenes—Nomenclature, structure of double bond (ethene), geometrical isomerism, physical properties, methods of preparation, chemical reactions: addition of hydrogen, halogen, water, hydrogen halides (Markownikov's addition and peroxide effect), ozonolysis, oxidation, mechanism of electrophilic addition. Alkynes—Nomenclature, structure of triple bond (ethyne), physical properties, methods of preparation, chemical reactions: acidic character of alkynes, addition reaction of - hydrogen, halogens, hydrogen halides and water. Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Introduction, IUPAC nomenclature, benzene: resonance, aromaticity, chemical properties: mechanism of electrophilic substitution. Nitration, sulphonation, halogenation, Friedel Craft's alkylation and acylation, directive influence of functional group in monosubstituted benzene. Carcinogenicity and toxicity. Unit XIV : Environmental Chemistry

(Periods 06)

Environmental pollution—air, water and soil pollution, chemical reactions in atmosphere, smog, major atmospheric pollutants, acid rain, ozone and its reactions, effects of depletion of ozone layer, greenhouse effect and global warming—pollution due to industrial wastes, green chemistry as an alternative tool for reducing pollution, strategies for control of environmental pollution.

U NIT

1

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Chemistry is a branch of science which deals with the composition, structure and properties of matters. Chemistry is also called the science of atoms and molecules. Chemistry is concerned with the changes undergoing in nature.

1.1

IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry plays a central role in science and it often interwinded with other branches of science. Some of the important applications of chemistry are given below: (i) It has provided chemical fertilizers, pesticides and weedicides. (ii) It has helped to protect the crops by use of certain insecticides, fungicides and pesticides. (iii) It has helped to preserve food by use of preservative. (iv) It has given methods to test the presence of adulterants. (v) Many life saving drugs such as cisplatin and taxol are effective in cancer therapy. (vi) AZT (azidothymidine) used for helping AIDS victims, have been isolated from plants and animals or prepared by synthetic methods. (vii) Discovery of anaesthetics has made surgical operations more and more successful. (viii) Synthetic vitamins and tonics have contributed towards good health. (ix) It has lead to the production of superconducting ceramics, conducting polymers and optical fibres. (x) Refrigerants like Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCs) which destroy the ozone layer have been replaced by environment friendly chemicals. (xi) Chemistry has helped in the production of synthetic fibres, building materials, domestic articles (detergents, oils, fats, sugar, paints, varnish, cosmetics, perfumes, cooking gas etc.) (xii) Application in war trinitrotoluene (TNT), nitroglycerine, dynamite, mustard gas, phosgene etc. all are chemical products. (xiii) Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms and it is considered as one of the essentials of life. 1

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ISBN 978-93-5274-020-8

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