19 Years in Service

& All Indian Univ.

MHI-2

For Master of Arts in History [MA] By Pratibha Thakur

Useful For IGNOU, KSOU (Karnataka), Bihar University (Muzaffarpur), Nalanda University, Jamia Millia Islamia, Vardhman Mahaveer Open University (Kota), Uttarakhand Open University, Kurukshetra University, Seva Sadan’s College of Education (Maharashtra), Lalit Narayan Mithila University, Andhra University, Pt. Sunderlal Sharma (Open) University (Bilaspur), Annamalai University, Bangalore University, Bharathiar University, Bharathidasan University, HP University, Centre for distance and open learning, Kakatiya University (Andhra Pradesh), KOU (Rajasthan), MPBOU (MP), MDU (Haryana), Punjab University, Tamilnadu Open University, Sri Padmavati Mahila Visvavidyalayam (Andhra Pradesh), Sri Venkateswara University (Andhra Pradesh), UCSDE (Kerala), University of Jammu, YCMOU, Rajasthan University, UPRTOU, Kalyani University, Banaras Hindu University (BHU) and all other Indian Universities.

Closer to Nature

We use Recycled Paper

GULLYBABA PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT. LTD. ISO 9001 & ISO 14001 CERTIFIED CO.

Published by:

GullyBaba Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Regd. Office:

Branch Office:

2525/193, 1 st Floor, Onkar Nagar-A, Tri Nagar, Delhi-110035 (From Kanhaiya Nagar Metro Station Towards Old Bus Stand) Ph. 011-27387998, 27384836, 27385249

1A/2A, 20, Hari Sadan, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Ph. 011-23289034 011-45794768

E-mail: [email protected], Website: GullyBaba.com

New Edition Price: `300/ISBN: 978-93-81066-11-9 Copyright© with Publisher

All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means; electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright holder. Disclaimer: This book is based on syllabus of IGNOU. This is only a sample. The book/author/publisher does not impose any guarantee or claim for full marks or to be pass in exam. You are advised only to understand the contents with the help of this book and answer in your words. Gullybaba Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. is not connected to any university/board/institution in any way. All disputes with respect to this publication shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the Courts, Tribunals and Forums of New Delhi, India only.

Free Home Delivery of GPH Books You can get GPH books by VPP/COD/Speed Post/Courier. You can order books by Email/SMS/WhatsApp/Call. For more details, visit gullybaba.com/faq-books.html Note : Selling this book on any online platform like Amazon, Flipkart, Shopclues, Rediff, etc. without prior written permission of the publisher is prohibited and hence any sales by the SELLER will be termed as ILLEGAL SALE of GPH Books which will attract strict legal action against the offender.

MHI 02 brilliantly describes the concept of ‘Modern World’, rather than modern Europe or America or Asia or any part of the world. Presented in nine Chapters, the book begins with the discussion on Modern World with Renaissance and Enlightenment based on polity, economy, and social structure. The book encompasses the process through which Modern World came into existence, and to the enormous complexities of oppression, brutality and displacement that came along with growth and development in the modern world. Presented in the question-and-answer format, the book has gone a long way to ease up the learning process of the students, and at the same time enthuse them to face the examination confidently. Definitely, student would find very helpful the fullysolved previous year questions appended at the end of the book. It is expected that the book would be of interest to students all across the country and it meets its primary objective – to give knowledge value to students.

My compliments go to the GullyBaba Publishing House (P) Ltd., and its meticulous team who have been enthusiastically working towards the perfection of the book. Their teamwork, initiative and research have been very encouraging. Had it not been for their unflagging support, this work wouldn’t have been possible. The creative freedom provided by them along with their aim of presenting the best to the reader has been a major source of inspiration in this work. Hope that this book would see success. Author

P.T.O.

The present book of the MHI series in the M.A. (History) education programme is targeted for examination purpose as well as enrichment. With the advent of technology and the Internet, there has been no dearth of information available to all; however, finding the relevant and qualitative information, which is focused, is an uphill task. We at GullyBaba Publishing House (P) Ltd., have taken this step to provide quality material which can accentuate in-depth knowledge about the subject. GPH books are a pioneer in the effort of providing unique and quality material to its readers. With our books, you are sure to attain success by making use of this powerful study material. Our site www.gullybaba.com is a vital resource for your examination. The publisher wishes to acknowledge the significant contribution of the Team Members and our experts in bringing out this publication and highly thankful to Almighty God, without His blessings, this endeavor wouldn’t have been successful. Publisher’s

TOPICS COVERED Block-1

Theories of the Modern World

Unit–1 Unit–2 Unit–3

Renaissance and the Idea of the Individual The Enlightenment Critiques of Enlightenment

Block-2

Modern World: Essential Components

Unit–4 Unit–5 Unit–6

Theories of the State Capitalist Economy and Its Critique The Social Structure

Block-3

The Modern State and Politics

Unit–7 Unit–8 Unit–9 Unit–10

Bureaucratisation Democratic Politics Modern State and Welfare Nationalism

Block-4

Capitalism and Industrialisation

Unit–11 Unit–12 Unit–13 Unit–14

Commercial Capitalism Capitalist Industrialisation Socialist Industrialisation Underdevelopment

Block-5

Expansion of Europe

Unit–15 Unit–16 Unit–17 Unit–18 Unit–19

Conquest and Appropriation Migrations and Settlements Imperialism Colonialism Decolonisation

Block-6

International Relations

Unit–20 Unit–21 Unit–22

Nation-State System International Rivalries of Twentieth Century The Unipolar World and Counter-Currents

Block-7

Revolutions

Unit–23 Unit–24 Unit–25 Unit–26

Political Revolution: France Political Revolution: Russia Knowledge Revolution: Printing and Informatics Technological Revolution: Communications and Medical

Block-8

Violence and Repression

Unit–27 Unit–28 Unit–29

Modern Warfare Total War Violence by Non-State Actors

Block-9

Dilemmas of Development

Unit–30 Unit–31 Unit–32

Demography Ecology Consumerism

Contents Chapter-1 Chapter-2 Chapter-3 Chapter-4 Chapter-5 Chapter-6 Chapter-7 Chapter-8 Chapter-9

Theories of the Modern World.......................................1-19 Modern World: Essential Components......................20-44 The Modern State and Politics.....................................45-72 Capitalism and Industrialisation................................73-116 Expansion of Europe....................................................117-147 International Relations................................................148-182 Revolutions.....................................................................183-210 Violence and Repression............................................211-226 Dilemmas of Development.........................................227-235

Question Papers (1) June-2008 (Solved)................................................................................239-243 (2) December-2008 (Solved)......................................................................244-249 (3) June-2009 (Solved)................................................................................250-253 (4) December-2009 (Solved)......................................................................254-257 (5) June-2010 (Solved)................................................................................258-262 (6) December-2010......................................................................................263-263 (7) June-2011 (Solved)................................................................................264-271 (8) December-2011......................................................................................272-272 (9) June-2012 (Solved)................................................................................273-276 (10) December-2012.....................................................................................277-277 (11) June-2013 .............................................................................................278-278 (12) December-2013.....................................................................................279-279 (13) June-2014 .............................................................................................280-280 (14) December-2014.....................................................................................281-281 (15) June-2015 .............................................................................................282-282 (16) December-2015.....................................................................................283-283 (17) June-2016 .............................................................................................284-284 (18) December-2016 (Solved)....................................................................285-293 (19) June-2017 (Solved) ............................................................................294-296 (20) December-2017 .................................................................................297-297 (21) June-2018 (Solved) ............................................................................298-305 (22) December-2018 .................................................................................306-306 (23) June-2019 (Solved) ............................................................................307-314 (24) December-2019 (Solved) .................................................................315-327

1

Theories of the Modern World

Q. 1. What do you mean by Renaissance? Or How did the Renaissance transform the socio­culture and political landscape of Europe? [Dec 2009, Q.No.­7][June 2009, Q.No.­1] Ans. Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art. Renaissance thinkers sought out in Europe’s monastic libraries and the crumbling Byzantine Empire the literary, historical, and oratorical texts of antiquity, typically written in Latin or ancient Greek, many of which had fallen into obscurity. It is in their new focus on literary and historical texts that Renaissance scholars differed so markedly from the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; on the contrary, many of the Renaissance’s greatest works were devoted to it, and the Church patronised many works of Renaissance art. However, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were brought back from Byzantium to Western Europe and engaged Western scholars for the first time since late antiquity. This new engagement with Greek Christian works, and particularly the return to the original Greek of the New Testament promoted by humanists Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus, would help pave the way for the Reformation. Artists such as Masaccio strove to portray the human form realistically, developing techniques to render perspective and light more

2

GullyBaba Publishing House (P) Ltd.

naturally. Political philosophers, most famous being Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe political life as it really was, that is to understand it rationally. A critical contribution to Italian Renaissance humanism Pico della Mirandola wrote the famous text “De hominis dignitate” (Oration on the Dignity of Man, 1486), which consists of a series of thesis on philosophy, natural thought, faith and magic defended against any opponent on the grounds of reason. In addition to studying classical Latin and Greek, Renaissance authors also began increasingly to use vernacular languages; combined with the introduction of printing, this would allow many more people access to books, especially the Bible. In all, Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought. Some scholars, such as Rodney Stark play down Renaissance in favour of the earlier innovations of the Italian city states in the High Middle Ages, which married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. This analysis argues that, whereas the great European states (France and Spain) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent city republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism, invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented commercial revolution which preceded and financed Renaissance. David, by Michelangelo (The Academia Gallery, Florence ) is an example of high renaissance art. The major socio­cultural developments in Europe during the 13 th­ th 15 centuries were not understood and codified as renaissance. In 1860, Jakob Burckhardt formulated the influential concepts of ‘Renaissance’ and ‘humanism’, in his pioneering masterpiece of cultural history, The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy. Burckhardt’s book was a “subtle synthesis of opinions about the Renaissance that had grown powerful during the Age of the Enlightenment”. He seemed to be confirming a story told by secular, liberal intellectuals of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries who were searching for the origins of their own beliefs and values, after the collapse of classical civilisation, a period of darkness and barbarism had set in, dominated by the church and the humdrum of rural life. The new secular and individualistic values, which were somewhat incompatible with Christian beliefs, constituted a new worldly philosophy of life known as ‘humanism’, drawing its main ideas and inspiration from ancient times. Humanism, subsequently became the

Theories of the Modern World

3

inspiration for questioning the moral basis of the feudal and Christian inheritances in Europe. Yet historians have not discarded fully the concept and the term ‘Renaissance’ in the sense Burckhardt had used it. For historical realities, which Burckhardt had described, cannot be dismissed with quibbles about terminology. Burckhardt rightly saw the emergence of a new culture and also located one of its main sources in Italian humanism by linking it to a unique set of social, political, and economic conditions. This new culture might seem to be product of the growth of commerce and cities in northern Italy from the late eleventh century. But urban growth and commercial expansion since the 11th century, does not explain why the new culture flowered almost at the end of the 14th century even as it is true that Italy during the 12 th and 13th centuries had become the most highly developed, the wealthiest and the most urbanized region of Europe. The urban and commercial growth of Italy stands in contrast to other parts of Europe in the north of the Alps, where the scholastic philosophy, Gothic art, and vernacular literature of these centuries were clearly associated with the clergy and the feudal aristocracy of the medieval age. Q. 2. What is the difference between Realism and Moralism? Ans. Realism is commonly defined as a concern for fact or reality and rejection of the impractical and visionary. However, the term realism is used, with varying meanings, in several of the liberal arts; particularly painting, literature, and philosophy. It is also used in international relations. In the visual arts and literature, realism is a mid­19th century movement, which started in France. The realists sought to render everyday characters, situations, dilemmas, and events; all in an “accurate” (or realistic) manner. Realism began as a reaction to romanticism, in which subjects were treated idealistically. Realists tended to discard theatrical drama and classical forms of art to depict commonplace or ‘realistic’ themes. Realism can also be defined as : 1. A concern for fact or reality and rejection of the impractical and visionary, 2. An artistic representation of reality as it is (sciences) The viewpoint that an external reality exists independent of observation (philosophy) A doctrine that universals are real—they exist and are distinct from the particulars that instantiate them.

4

GullyBaba Publishing House (P) Ltd.

Moralism can be defined as follows : 1. A conventional moral maxim or attitude. 2. The act or practice of moralizing. 3. Often undue concern for morality. 4. The habit or practice of moralizing 5. A moral saying 6. (Philosophy) the practice of moral principles without reference to religion. Plutarch presented a vision of man in society whose achievements were results of their pursuit of glory and entrained with a certain conception of virtue. The idea was attractive and powerful because of its intense realism. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469­1527), a Florentine scholar, who, in his famous 1513 tract The Prince, describes the role of man in that segment of society which is called politics. Machiavelli, too, was secular and a realist; he showed that the will to power was a dominated motive in human action though often coated with nice words of religious and ethical nature. Upon a closer look it revealed itself as pure self­interest; and more importantly there was nothing wrong about it. Machiavelli’s political thought is often interpreted as “the activation, in one sense or another, of a pagan morality, without being contaminated by Christina asceticism”. It is also argued that being a realist he suggested a dual morality. Which was moral in the public sphere might have been immoral in one’s private life. Machiavelli’s condemnation of cunning on the part of a ruler in the larger interest of the realm, is the well­known example of the dual morality. Machiavelli apparently was interested more in what men did in the public sphere than what they preached. Scholars like Quentin Skinner have painstakingly argued that this was essentially a pre­Christian pagan morality where success was worshiped as virtue. Even though Machiavelli had a gloomy opinion about the way life was governed by fortune, he placed a large premium on the appropriate initiatives by men to overpower fortune. In a sense this was a celebration of man as a self determining being. It certainly implied an individualistic outlook and is often described as ‘renaissance individualism’. However, the renaissance view of man replaced this with the dynamic view in which “the two extremes poles were the greatness of man and also his littleness. Whether great or small, man began to be looked upon as a relatively autonomous being, ‘creating his own destiny, struggling with fate, making himself’. This was no more than an idealised image of actual man, backed up adequately by a pluralism of moral values reversing a value system

Theories of the Modern World

5

based on the seven cardinal sins and seven cardinal virtues of medieval Christianity. The pluralism of moral values appears boldly in the way the renaissance intellectuals began to respond very differently to different human propensities. If the striving for power was perfectly acceptable to Machiavelli, to some others, like Thomas More, it was a source of much mischief. To put it simply the renaissance experienced the development of what may be labeled as realistic ethics, suggesting a situation where values became relative and contradictory calling upon man to look for the appropriate measure to distinguish between good and bad against the background of a significant transformation of social life. Besides incorporating the secularist and individualist aspects of humanism, the reborn age or Renaissance should be called realistic as well. In painting, attempts were made to represent everything as it appeared. Though not totally absent in the previous ages, one can certainly maintain that for many centuries realism had been relatively unimportant. Already in the 14th and 15th centuries, during the first phases of humanist culture, painters increasingly attempted to reproduce reality, casting off preconceived ideas about what was morally or religiously acceptable. Increasingly, what the eye could measure or observe was painted incorporating distance, depth and colour in order to make the painting more realistic. In sculpture too people were individualised, with recognisable faces, whereas the art of the preceding centuries had been a component of an architectural background – reliefs more than free­standing figures; in the changed context sculpted images presented man according to his newly­won vision of himself as an independent and free personality, displaying a certain pride in the beauty of the body, both the male and, in view of the conventions of the preceding age, the female too. Inevitably, trade and travel, military conquest and diplomatic contacts linked the new culture of the Italian towns and courts with the world beyond. The new culture was admired and imitated all over Europe although, of course, by the better educated and the wealthy, only. For both south and north of the Alps, Humanism and the Renaissance were elite phenomena. Only very few of the new ideas and thoughts filtered down to the ordinary man who, after all, could not read or write the polite language, lacking, as the cultivated mind of the age saw it, the ability to acquire virtue and wisdom. By the beginning of the 16th century humanist values had begun to refashion the intellectual life of northern Europe. John Colet and

6

GullyBaba Publishing House (P) Ltd.

Sir Thomas More popularised them in England, Jacque’s Lefevre’d Etaples and Guillaume Bude in France, Conrad Celtis and Hohann Reuchulin in Germany and Erasmus in Holland were the leading humanists in early 16 th century Europe. But unlike Italy, where professionals dominated the humanist movement and gave it a secular character–even atheist in some cases – in European humanism the leading protagonists were mostly members of the clerical order. Their reassessment of Christian theology set the stage for the Reformation by calling upon Christians to practice religion in the way it had been stated in the ancient texts of the Christian religion, by discarding unnecessary and unpalatable rituals, condemned as later accretions to a simple religion. With the advent of the Reformation, the humanist ‘Self Congratulation on living in a golden age’ was eclipsed by theological battles of the time. ‘The waning of the Renaissance’ had begun. Yet the new view of man as a free rational agent was a principle to which the post­Renaissance philosophy returned over the again, inspired by the belief in a distant god who created man but allowed him complete freedom to live his life freely, in pursuit of happiness ‘here and now’. Q. 3. What was the contribution of Renaissance in the creation of new world? [Dec 2008, Q.No.­1] Ans. Renaissance created the condition for the making of a new world. It starts by significant commercial, socio­cultural and literary developments in Europe during the 13th­15th centuries, it came to be viewed and conceptualised as Renaissance only in the 19 th century. The Renaissance was marked by the emergence of a new culture with roots in Italian humanism. This culture was the product of a set of unique social, political and economic conditions prevalent in parts of Europe from the late 11th century onwards. These conditions were most conspicuous in the northern part of present­day Italy with the growth of commerce and cities. These developments brought about an important shift in the centers of political power from the clerics (men associated with the Christian Church) and feudal nobles to wealthy urban merchants. At the same time there was also a tendency towards a consolidation of political power. These crucial developments along with the emergence of new social groups (lawyers and notaries), new ideologies (humanism and tendencies towards secularism) and new technologies (print) cumulatively transformed the socio­cultural and political landscape of Europe. These developments also created new forces which, in the centuries to follow, worked towards a greater cohesion and integration of the world.

Theories of the Modern World

7

The Santa Maria del Fiore Church of Florence, Italy. Florence was the capital of the Renaissance. Q. 4. Discuss the main ideas of Enlightenment. [June 2010, Q.No.­1][June 2008, Q.No.­1] Ans. The ideas of the Enlightenment, in particular, its faith in scientific method of investigation, its optimism that the new era of scientific­technological advancement and industrialisation would lead to a world filled with happiness for all and its attempts to create a social order based on the principles of human reason, tolerance and equality, affected a profound social and intellectual revolution. Although votaries of Enlightenment had little political clout in the first half of the 18 th century, theirs was perhaps the most popular voice by the end of that century. Certainly it was the most effective in determining what constitutes a ‘modern’ outlook. The distinction that they posited between tradition and modernity, religion and science, their reliance on reform and state initiatives for re­structuring society provided a model of development that would be endorsed not only in the advanced industrialised societies but also in the colonised world. Indeed, all over the world Enlightenment was to become synonymous with modernity. The influence of Enlightenment is evident as much in the modernisation theories that dominated the study of societies in the mid­twenties century as it is in the social reform movements of the nineteenth century in India. The former invoked Enlightenment’s

"Good Preparation and Good Score in Short Time"

Available in Hindi & English MHI-01 : Ancient and Medieval Societies MHI-02 : Modern World MHI-03 : Historiography MHI-04 : Political Structures in India MHI-05 : History of Indian Economy MHI-06 : Evolution of Social Structures in India Through the Ages MHI-08 : History of Ecology and Environment : India MHI-09 : Indian National Movement MHI-10 : Urbanisation in India (New Book) MPSE-003 : Western Political Thought MPSE-004 : Social and Political Thought in Modern India

IGNOU New Syllabus (CBCS) Books also available for BAG

Core Courses (CC)

BCOMG

BSCG

Discipline Specic Electives (DSE)

Skill Enhancement Courses (SEC)

Ability Enhancement Compulsory Courses (AECC)

Generic Electives (GE)