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SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT :

ISSUES AND

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Sustainable Development Development:: Issues and Challenges MED-02

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ustainability is a dynamic concept born out of the environmental debate of the last quarter century. There is growing concern nationally and internationally about biodiversity and protection of plants and animals and community based activity. It is important to view sustainable efforts from global perspective that addresses socio-economic and environmental issues. The Rio Summit emphasized on economic growth and poverty alleviation for sustainable development. The basic prerequisite of sustainable development is the evolution of a development process with focus on the enhancement of the living conditions of population as a whole with emphasis on raising the standard of living of the poor. The Agenda 21 called all countries to develop national strategies for sustainable development to translate the words and commitments of Earth summit into concrete policies and actions. The important issue in the 21 st century is to create greater economic and societal well-being without deterioration of the environment and depletion of the resources. A primary goal of sustainable development is to achieve a reasonable and equitably distributed level of economic well being that can be perpetuated continually for many human generations. It also implies using renewable natural resources in a manner that does not eliminate or degrade them, or otherwise diminish their usefulness for future generations. Sustainable development also requires depleting non-renewable energy resources at a slow enough rate so as to ensure the high probability of an orderly society transition to renewable energy sources. In this book we tried to solve all possible questions from the exams’ point of view. Enriched with useful and to-the-point matter with new features such as word meaning of difficult words, explanation of new terms, figures/diagrams to beautify the book, etc. We hope that this effort will fulfil the readers’ expectations and help them to do well in respective exams. Feedback in this regard is welcomed.

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TOPICS COVERED Block-1

Introduction to Sustainable Development

Unit–1 Unit–2 Unit–3 Unit–4

What is Sustainable Development Parameters of Sustainable Development Approaches to the Study of Sustainable Development Issues and Challenges

Block-2

Developmental Issues

Unit–5 Unit–6 Unit–7 Unit–8

Natural Resource Exploitation Patterns of Industrialisation Inequitable Growth Global and Regional Dimensions

Block-3

Initiatives towards Sustainable Development

Unit–9 Unit –10 Unit –11 Unit –12

State Initiatives Regional Initiatives Global Initiatives Civil Societies and Community Initiatives

Block-4

Strategy for Sustainable Development

Unit–13 Unit–14 Unit–15 Unit–16

Community Knowledge Harness Technology Innovative Practices Co-operation and Partnership

Contents Chapter–1 Chapter–2 Chapter–3 Chapter–4

Introduction to Sustainable Development...........1 Developmental Issues..........................................43 Initiatives towards Sustainable Development...97 Strategy for Sustainable Development.............139

Question Papers (1) June: 2009........................................................................189 (2) December: 2009...............................................................196 (3) June: 2010.........................................................................198 (4) December: 2010...............................................................199 (5) June: 2011........................................................................202 (6) December: 2011..............................................................208 (7) June: 2012........................................................................210 (8) December: 2012..............................................................211 (9) June: 2013........................................................................212 (10) December: 2013..............................................................213 (11) June: 2014.......................................................................214 (12) December: 2014..............................................................215 (13) June: 2015.......................................................................216 (14) December: 2015...............................................................217 (15) June: 2016........................................................................218 (16) December: 2016...............................................................219 (17) June: 2017 (Solved)..........................................................220 (18) December: 2017 (Solved)..............................................222 (19) June: 2018.....................................................................225 (20) December: 2018 (Solved)..............................................226 (21) June: 2019.....................................................................230 (22) December: 2019 (Solved)..............................................231

“Some people dream of success; while others wake up and work hard at it”. ~Unknown~

1

Introduction to Sustainable Development An Overview

We may have heard people talking about Sustainable Development – in public meetings, on television and on the radio. Consultants talk about it, university professors lecture on it, and at various levels of government, it may even be mandated. But what is Sustainable Development? Sustainable development is a way for people to use resources without the resources running out. Sustainable development in India encompasses a variety of development schemes in social, cleantech (clean energy, clean water and sustainable agriculture) and human resources segments, having caught the attention of both Central and State governments and also public and private sectors. The past two centuries of development worldwide, and, in particular in industrialised countries, have taken place at tremendous cost to the environment - locally, regionally and globally. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) was a historical landmark. It marked the recognition by the global community that the environmental problems facing humanity - including climate change, declining biodiversity, desertification and ozone depletion - challenge us to change our development patterns. The Brundtland commission articulated this challenge as a need to achieve what it termed as “sustainable development,” i.e. “development which meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. In this Chapter, we will be familiar with challenges, issues, parameter, approaches, etc. of sustainable development.

2

Sustainable Development: Issues and Challenges [MED-002]

Q1. Illustrate the meaning of sustainability, development and sustainable development. Or What do you understand by sustainable development? In addition, write its objectives. Or Discuss the meaning and growth of the concept of sustainable development. [Dec-2010, Q.No.1] Or Examine the meaning and objectives of sustainable development. Ans. Sustainable development has emerged out of the fears of depleting natural resources and a subsequent slowing or even closing down of much of the economic activities and production systems. Sustainability The term ‘Sustainability’ is used to demonstrate the temporal and the livelihood context of development policies. The temporal context refers to the chronological perspective in which communities maintain their cultural and economic integrity. The livelihood context of development policies is the preservation of existing values, which are under threat from external economic forces leading to the collapse of a delicate natural resource balance. The Strategy for Sustainable Living (1991) by International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) says that ‘sustainable use means use of an organism, ecosystem, or other renewable resource at a rate within its capacity for renewal’. Development The term ‘Development’ means the social and economic improvement in a broad sense. It is needed to create opportunities, prosperity and choices for all inhabitants of the world and it must proceed in a way that leaves choices available for future generations also. It refers to a holistic growth of the human and natural environment towards autonomy and freedom. It indicates a growth pattern, which makes nations more decisive in their internal and external environment. Sustainable Development The concept of Sustainable Development was envisaged to bring environmentalist ideas into the central theme of economic development policy. It sought to modify the kind of unsustainable development strategies that were being pursued. Sustainable development combines the two terms of ‘sustainability’ and ‘development’ to indicate a pattern of growth, which strengthens both the national capabilities to care for their people in relation to their total relationship with the resources of the earth.

Introduction to Sustainable Development

3

Sustainable development is a pattern of growth in which resource use aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be meet not only in the present, but also for generations to come (sometimes taught as ELF-Environment, Local people, Future). The field of sustainable growth in which resource use development can be conceptually broken into three constituent parts: •

Environmental Sustainability: Environmental sustainability is the ability to maintain rates of renewable resource harvest, pollution creation, and non-renewable resource depletion that can be continued indefinitely.

•

Economic Sustainability: Economic sustainability is the ability to support a defined level of economic production indefinitely.

•

Sociopolitical Sustainability: Social sustainability is the ability of a social system, such as a country, to function at a defined level of social well being indefinitely.

Objectives of Sustainable Development Sustainable development has some forward looking and broad based objectives, which transcend class, caste, language, and regional barriers. These objectives are a charter for liberating one’s economy from the clutches of exploitative mindset, which has depraved nations and defied their biomass wealth. These objectives are: •

To maintain the standards of living of the largest number of people with equity and justice. The consideration of trans-boundary and cumulative impacts in decision-making has to be realised.

•

To conserve and protect earth’s natural resources from misuse and wasteful consumption. This demands respect for the land and its diversity as the foundation for healthy communities.

•

To innovate new technology and scientific techniques, which work in union with laws of nature and are not opposed to it? There needs to be a consideration of sharing the risks and benefits from developmental policies undertaken by different nations.

•

To respect diversity and involve local and indigenous communities for a more grassroots oriented and relevant developmental policies. This would involve consideration of economic viability, culture and environmental values, as policies and programmes are developed.

•

To decentralise governance institutions and make them more resilient, transparent and accountable to people. They should have an open, inclusive and participative decision-making.

4

Sustainable Development: Issues and Challenges [MED-002]

•

To plan international institutions, which recognise the requirements of poor nations and support them to achieve their growth targets without destroying their natural wealth and environment.

•

To seek peaceful coexistence of all nations of the world because only peace can allow them space to innovate for the larger interests of humanity. This may demand honouring of treaties and fiduciary obligations and international agreements.

Along with the development of the definition of sustainable development, procedural aspects gained prominence as well. In terms of process, sustainable development is perceived less as an ultimate outcome and more as a pathway to change. Thereby, more emphasis is put on factors that influence decision-making such as organisation culture, availability of information, the rationality of decision-making and the use of impact assessment tools. Q2. Criticise the growth model. Ans. Non-sustainable development is seen as the failure of growth-oriented policies, which focus only on quantitative production as against the qualitative and holistic production benefiting people. Traditionally the growth of a nation has been calculated in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP), which do not indicate the fact that the nation is actually rich in culture and progressive in human values. These indicators focus mainly on the tangible products and fail to calculate the value of the intangibles such as pollution effect on health, value of the forests, loss in terms of their animal and plant biodiversity and maintaining the ground water recharge shed, etc. Our future is linked together. Sustainability of development is comparatively a new area of knowledge in which scientists, economists, philosophers and other social scientists are working together. In general, the question of development or progress is perennial. Studies made since the last phase of the United Nations (UN) declared first development decade has shown that gross income growth is not always translated into poverty reduction. By the end of the last century, there were more than 1.3 billion people living in developing countries who survived on less than US $ 1 a day with increasing malnourishment, homelessness and deprivation. The growth model has not taken care of the distribution of income in the world. As a result, the poor have become poorer while the precious wealth has got locked up with the top 20 per cent richest. Various forms of disparities such as inequitable production, distribution, and consumption have grown into massive proportions making the poor people vulnerable to the policies framed by the few rich at the top.

Introduction to Sustainable Development

5

Q3. Explain the impact of industrialisation on sustainable development. Ans. Industrialisation is the process of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial one. The Industrial Revolution began in England sometime after the middle of the 18th century and transformed Great Britain from a largely rural population making a living almost entirely from agriculture to a town-centered society engaged increasingly in factory manufacture. A series of inventions transformed the manufacture of cotton goods in England and gave rise to a new mode of production — the factory system. During the years from 1750 to 1830, other branches of industry affected comparable advances, and all these together, mutually reinforcing one another, made possible further gains on an ever-widening front. The abundance and variety of innovations may be included under three principles: • The substitution of machines — rapid, regular, precise, tireless, for human skill and effort. •

•

The substitution of inanimate for animate sources of power, in particular, the introduction of engines for converting heat into work, thereby opening to man anew and abundant supply of energy. The use of new and far more abundant raw materials, in particular, the substitution of mineral for vegetable or animal substances.

Other European nations underwent the same process soon thereafter, followed by others during the 19th century, and still others (such as Russia and Japan) in the first half of the 20th century. The Industrial Revolution was no mere sequence of changes in industrial techniques and production, but a social revolution with social causes as well as profound social effects. The Industrial Revolution implied that man now had not only the opportunity and the knowledge but also the physical means to completely subdue* nature. However, while it brought its blessings, there was also much misery. The Industrial Revolution needed the resources, especially the raw materials, which were concentrated mainly in the now poor nations. While the resources were extracted from the southern countries (presently the developing countries), the value addition was done mostly in the northern countries (presently the developed countries), thus creating an economic imbalance. The colonisation process also was responsible for exploiting natural resources of ‘South’ for export, and established large monocultures and opened up a largely unexploited domain. After independence, the newly established governments frequently paid more attention to rapid * Subdue: bring under control by force.

6

Sustainable Development: Issues and Challenges [MED-002]

economic development than to fair and equitable access to natural resources. From the 1950s onwards, northern countries sought fast economic growth through state-managed industrialisation plans that led to excessive resource use and waste. The legacy of these forms of industrial production in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe has not only seen economic dislocation but also daunting environmental problems such as the death of the Aral Sea, nuclear contamination, and high levels of air and water pollution. Since 1989, most such regimes have begun to move towards market-based systems of economic organisation and economic liberalisation, often accompanied by democratisation. While market systems have been inherently efficient at economic organisation, environmental costs have traditionally been excluded from the decisionmaking process. This has allowed unsustainable exploitation of natural resources as well as unsustainable demands on natural pollution sinks, like the tropical rain forests. In 1991, the annual ‘product’ of the global economy was valued at $29,000 million, which meant it produced, in just 17 days, the equivalent of the entire annual global product a hundred years before. This has increased all forms of industrial activities such as energy generation, transportation, mechanical equipments and chemicals in agriculture, waste and effluent discharges and release of harmful and hazardous gases in the air. This has led to high pollution levels and extinction of several species from the earth. The United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP) Red Data Book estimates that 25 per cent of species are about to face extinction as more than 100 species are becoming extinct every day. Unmindful industrialisation has also led to fatal accidents as seen in Bhopal, Chernobyl and Exxon Valdez. Sustainable development, therefore, is a reaction to the threatening speed of industrial activity undertaken by states, both rich and poor. Q4. Write short notes on the following: (a) Urbanisation Ans. Urbanisation refers to a process in which an increasing proportion of an entire population lives in cities and the suburbs of cities.  Historically, it has been closely connected with industrialisation. The expansion of industrialisation has resulted in the expansion of cities. This has meant expansion into rural lands that grow food and nurture cattle and village forests and provide several forms of sustainable occupations to the communities in these areas. The spread of cities and industrial towns on one hand leads to the loss of agricultural land including forest resources and intense and unmanageable migration towards the cities on the other. The level of urbanisation in India has increased from 25.4 per cent in 1970

Introduction to Sustainable Development

7

to 33.6 per cent in 1990 and is expected to rise to 57 per cent by the year 2025. Uncontrolled and unplanned expansion of towns and cities with large populations has overwhelmed transport, communication, water supply, sanitation and energy systems resulting in a growth of urban poor and unemployed population with precarious* health problems. There are three distinct types of poor urban dwellers; the homeless, those living in slums, and squatters occupying illegal shantytowns. The basic services such as water supply and sanitation remain inaccessible to the urban poor. The lack of these services along with malnourishment and diseases like diarrhoea and tuberculosis, etc. keep them in ill health. Cities often have become dump yards of garbage and industrial waste. This has given rise to environmental problems like air and water pollution with fatal consequences sometimes. Today, there are serious social, economic, and environmental problems within cities. The impact of urbanisation is that the cities consume raw materials from surrounding regions and generate waste and pollution. For example, fuel wood consumed in Delhi comes from the forests of Madhya Pradesh. Thus, the commercialisation and greater demand of fuel wood in a city leads to deforestation in a far-off area. The untreated dispersal of the wastes generated by the cities into river water sources results in their contamination. This has serious repercussions on the aquatic life as well as downstream human settlements. The vegetation of the surrounding areas is also affected. For example, the acid rains, which are detrimental** to the vegetation and aquatic life in Europe, are the result of severe air pollution caused by the industrialisation of the neighbouring countries. (b) Inequities Ans. The new indices, e.g. Human Development Index (HDI) developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to study the quality of life have brought into focus the widening gap between the countries of the North and the South. On one hand, a wealthy minority of the world’s population is consuming at an unsustainably high level, causing disproportionate damage to global ecosystems, while protecting only their local environment. On the other hand, a poor, larger, and rapidly growing proportion of the world’s population is being forced by poverty to degrade the natural resource base on which it is directly dependent. In addition, a vast global ‘middle class’ is emerging by continued economic growth and globalisation. The developing countries with 77 per cent of world population generate only 15 per cent of world income. The average GNP per capita in * Precarious: Exposed to or involving danger. ** Detrimental: Damaging; harmful.

8

Sustainable Development: Issues and Challenges [MED-002]

the North is US$ 12510, which is more than 18 times the average in the South, which is US$ 710. The UNDP estimated in the last decade that the number of poor is going to increase in the coming decades. This increase is largely related to the unfair developmental policies being pursued by international trading institutions. The key issues are how to add value to agriculture and cottage industries produce at the production site itself as also how to provide welfare funding to institutions catering to the poor children, destitute women and dalits who have remained marginalised and reduce the gap between the haves and the have-nots that is increasing in the process of economic globalisation. (c) Resource Utilisation Ans. The four major resources of this earth, which are taken care of by every nation individually, as well as through international agreements are land, water, air, and forests. The industrialised countries such as the G8 (United States [US], Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Canada and Russia), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and European Union (EU), which have less than 23 per cent of the world population, have been consuming resources that are several times more than that being consumed by the whole of Asia, Latin America and Africa taken together. The energy consumption of one US citizen is equal to more than 160 Tanzanians or 900 Nepalese. This affluence of the North has led to an irresponsible release of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gas into the environment to the extent of 28 per cent by US alone. On the contrary, the poor countries are so laden with debt that to repay the debt are forced to over-extract their resources and sell it to the rich nations. Q5. Outline the various dimensions and concept of sustainable development. What are its fundamental principles? Ans. Sustainable development emerged as a concept in the early sixties when the ruthless industrialisation in the developed countries started showing visible signs of natural degradation and problems of pollution and ill health. Sustainable development became a wholesome word after the Brundtland Commission Report of 1987. It has three fundamental principles of intergenerational equity and justice, intra-generational equity and justice and that of the respect for the carrying capacity of land. Sustainable development is the most politicised catchword of international developmental conferences and programmes. Sustainable development has emerged out of the fears of depleting natural resources and a subsequent slowing or even closing down of much of the economic activities and production systems. The concept has emerged as a broad framework to debate and decide on desirable direction of change in social and

Introduction to Sustainable Development

9

economic systems, policies, programmes and actions at the national, community or individual levels. It developed in the 1960s when people became aware of the detrimental effects of industrialisation on the environment. Sustainability offers long-term planning for productive techniques, industrial processes and equitable distribution policies for the exploitation of resources, such as, to name a few, coal, oil and water. This planning ensures their longer life span and a broader user base so that the greatest number of people may benefit out of it for the longest possible period. The emergence of the idea of sustainability also strikes at the indispensability of technological transformation towards energy saving devices, alternate and non-conventional systems for providing comfort to citizens without bringing down their quality of life. This has led to a total revolution in the way people and governments have started thinking and designing their developmental programmes and projects. A new respect has emerged for the grassroots governance, which fuels growth by providing land, water, and forests that constitute the three basic inputs to any form of industrialisation. Thus, sustainable development is also indicative of ‘planning from below’ in contrast to the ivory tower ‘planning from top’ in which grassroots ecosystems were driven by technological systems. Dimensions of Sustainable Development The world faces a wide variety of critical environmental threats: degradation of soil, water, and marine resources essential to increased food production, widespread, health-threatening pollution, stratospheric ozone depletion, global climate change, and loss of biodiversity. At the same time, it faces enormous human problems in the form of widespread, persistent poverty and human misery—despite growing affluence for many—and a pattern of economic growth that is worsening rather than remedying such disparities. Such problems are troubling enough. But if human societies in decades to come are to inhabit a world that is environmentally secure, economically prosperous, and characterised by growing peace, freedom, and human welfare, then current generations must also come to grips with underlying trends that threaten to make these problems far worse. One of the most basic trends is that world population has doubled since 1950 and is expected to roughly double again by the middle of the next century. Similarly, as people everywhere have struggled to improve their standards of living, world economic activity has grown at about 3 per cent per year since 1950; if this rate continues in the decades ahead, then the world economy will be 5 times larger in the year 2050 than it is today.

Available in Hindi & English MPS-01 : Political Theory MPS-02 : International Relations : Theory and problems MPS-03 : India : Democracy and Development MPS-04 : Comparative Politics : Issues and Trends MPSE-01 : India and the World MPSE-02 : State and Society in Latin America MPSE-03 : Western Political Thought MPSE-04 : Social and Political Thought in Modern India MPSE-06 : Peace and Conict Studies MPSE-07 : Social Movements and Politics in India MPSE-08 : State Politics in India MPSE-09 : Canada : Politics and Society MPSE-11 : The European Union in World Affairs MPSE-12 : State and Society in Australia MPSE-13 : Australia's Foreign Policy MED-02 : Sustainable Development : Issues and challenges MED-08 : Globalization and Environment MGP-04 : Gandhi's Political Thought MGPE-07 : Non-violent Movements after Gandhi MGPE-08 : Gandhian Approach to Peace and Conict Resolution MGPE-10 : Conict Management, Transformation and peacebuilding MGPE-11 : Human Security MGPE-13 : Civil Society, Politcal Regimes and Conict

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