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MPCE-21
NOTES
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Counselling Psychology MPCE-021 Notes For Master of Arts (Psychology)
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Topics Covered Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4
Introduction Counselling: Models and Approaches Types of Counselling Counselling for Mental Disorders
Question Papers (1) December -2015 …………………………………………………..………85 (2) June -2016 ………………………………………………..….…..………86 (3) December -2016 …………………………………......……..….………87 (4) June -2017 ………………………………………………………….……..88 (5) December -2017 …………………………………………….……..…….89 (6) June -2018 ……………………………………………………….………..90 (7) December -2018 …………………………………………….………..….91 (8) June-2019.........…………………………………………….………..….92 (9) December -2019…………………………………………….………..…..93
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Q1. Differentiate between Counselling and Guidance. Ans Psychology, the study of behaviour and of mental processes, is a diverse field. It involves the process of understanding the reasons why people behave and think as they do and applies scientific methods in observing and gathering information, in order to come up with an applicable principle of behaviour and motivation. It is subjective and is applied according to the specific requirements of an individual. Among the many branches and applications of psychology are the fields of Guidance and Counselling. Guidance and Counselling both involve helping an individual in making choices about the different things that might confront and confuse him. They are totally different fields though and to help distinguish between the two, here are some of the things that are used to describe them: Counselling: Counselling is a psychological specialty that deals with research and applied work in supervision, training, career development, prevention, and health. It focuses on a person’s strengths, assets, environmental interactions, educational background, career development and personality. Counselling started as a result of WWII. Since then, it has been used by individuals, institutions, families, rehabilitation agencies and other organisations. It utilizes psychological methods in the collection of case history data through personal interview, testing and aptitude. It helps clients to choose the best solution to a problem, through the process of listening and questioning. It is important to note that counselling is not a giving of opinion and it is based on a wellness model rather than a medical one. A counsellor’s basic concern should go beyond treating dysfunction or pathology. It should deal with a client’s self‐awareness which should help him towards personal growth and wellness. Guidance: Guidance is defined as the act of guiding, giving leadership, supervision, direction or professional guidance for future actions. It is usually provided to students in preparation for a vocation. Guidance helps a person discover and develop his psychological, vocational and educational potential in order to be happier and more useful in society. Each person is responsible for his decisions and actions, but when he is young he will need someone more mature and experienced to guide him through life and towards making the right decisions for himself.
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Counselling Psychology [MPCE-021]
Like counselling, it assists clients towards a decision or an appropriate course of action. It may be used as therapeutic aid in the treatment of minor emotional disturbances and disorders. Q2. Discuss the issue of awareness of values in counsellor‐client relationship. Ans Counsellors‐in‐training are often encouraged to be aware of and discuss issues that they think would be difficult for them to address with clients in counselling. A first‐year counselling student recently disclosed that due to his values of multicultural awareness and acceptance, he would find it difficult to work with a client who expressed any prejudices in counselling. Given the counselling profession’s shift to a multicultural and social justice paradigm when working with clients, this is a valid concern but one rarely discussed when training counsellors to work with culturally different individuals. How should counsellors handle prejudices that clients express in counselling? Do these prejudices need to be addressed if they are not related to the client’s presenting issue? The counselling profession has established values of awareness, knowledge and skills in multicultural counselling and social justice as a way to address power, privilege and oppression. Focus has largely been placed on how to guide treatment of culturally different clients in ways that acknowledge their unique worldviews. Under the banner of social justice and advocacy, counsellors must also address the societal, historical and political issues that continue to oppress others. However, little information has been provided on how to address the biases of clients who may hold power and privilege in society, especially White clients who express prejudices. Granted, prejudice is not a common presenting issue that brings clients to counselling. However, it is not uncommon for clients to express such values and beliefs in the counselling context. We are all cultural beings with unique values, histories and worldviews, and racism and prejudice affect everyone in some way. As counsellors, we are taught to work within the worldview of the client, and social justice maintains that we must also work within a conceptual framework of how oppression at individual, societal and institutional levels can affect a person’s growth and development. By addressing biases that clients bring to counselling — biases that have the potential to be harmful to their own growth and the growth of others — we are addressing aspects of their worldview, while also adhering to the values of social justice. I experienced this dilemma firsthand while working with college students during my training as a counsellor. Feeling caught off guard, I
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struggled with how to handle a situation in which a client expressed racial stereotypes in counselling. I had little guidance from supervisors or professors concerning how to make sense of the situation. After researching the meaning of racism and prejudice and discussing with other counsellors the best way to meet clients’ needs while also addressing power and privilege, I developed some considerations and interventions that counsellors can use if they ever experience a client expressing prejudices in counselling. In multicultural counselling and social justice training, counsellors are primarily exposed to information that will help culturally different and oppressed clients, even as these counsellors focus on awareness of their own prejudicial experiences and culture. This article addresses ways to work with clients who have the power to oppress. This is an issue that is aligned with the goals of social justice, albeit at an individual level, in an attempt to address biases in those who hold them. Of course, culturally different persons can also express biases and stereotypes toward other groups, but these biases may have different meanings and origins. The interventions and conceptual issues presented in this article can be tailored to other situations, but the emphasis is largely around working with White clients who endorse stereotypes or biases toward people commonly oppressed in society. Therefore, the goal is to provide counsellors with considerations and possible interventions to help these clients gain more insight and awareness that will potentially stimulate their personal growth. Q3. Discuss the psychoanalytic approach to counselling. Ans. Cognitive:We define this as any therapy that is based on the belief that our thoughts are directly connected to how we feel. The cognitive therapies include Rational‐Emotive, Cognitive‐Behavioural, Reality, and Transactional Analysis. Therapists in the cognitive field work with clients to solve present day problems by helping them to identify distorted thinking that causes emotional discomfort. Thereʹs little emphasis on the historical root of a problem. Rather, whatʹs wrong with my present thinking that it is causing me distress? Common traits among the cognitive approaches include a collaborative relationship between client and therapist, homework between sessions, and the tendency to be of short duration. These therapies are best known for treating mild depression, anxiety, and anger problems.
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Counselling Psychology [MPCE-021]
Behavioural: This is based on the premise that primary learning comes from experience. The initial concern in therapy is to help the client analyze behaviour, define problems, and select goals. Therapy often includes homework, behavioural experiments, role‐ playing, assertiveness training, and self‐management training. Like its cognitive therapy cousins it utilizes collaboration between client and therapist, and is usually of short duration. Psychoanalytic: The original so called ‘talking therapy’ involves analysing the root causes of behaviour and feelings by exploring the unconscious mind and the conscious mindʹs relation to it. Many theories and therapies have evolved from the original Freudian psychoanalysis which utilizes free‐association, dreams, and transference, as well other strategies to help the client know the function of their own minds. Traditional analysts have their clients lie on a couch as the therapist takes notes and interprets the clientʹs thoughts, etc. Many theories and therapies have evolved from the original psychoanalysis, including Hypno‐therapy, object‐relations, Progofʹs Intensive Journal Therapy, Jungian, and many others. One thing they all have in common is that they deal with unconscious motivation. Usually the duration of therapy is lengthy; however, many modern therapists use psychoanalytic techniques for short term therapies. Q4. Critically discuss the transactional analysis approach to counselling. (Dec. 2015) Or Evaluate transactional analysis as an approach to counselling. (Dec. 2016) Ans. Transactional analysis is another cognitive theory formulated by Eric Berne in the early 1960s. He believed that the majority of our life experiences are recorded in our subconscious minds in an unaltered fashion and become a part of the way we behave. The behaviour is subconsciously designed to get reactions and determine how others feel about us. It is a method of dealing with behavioural disorders and can be used to manage classroom behaviour if we understand that children’s acceptable and unacceptable behaviour is designed to ascertain how others feel about them. He believed that there were three states of mind in all humans, no matter how old they were, called the ego states. Berne believed that a lot of people get stuck in one ego state more than the other two and that this may be due to early childhood
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experiences. His theory was that in childhood we have a life position assigned to us, because of the experiences we have from birth onwards. Views of Human Nature: Transactional analysis is an optimistic theory based on the assumption that people can change despite an unfortunate events of the past. It focuses on four methods of understanding and predicting human behaviour: • Structural analysis – understanding what is happening within the person. • Transactional analysis – describing what happens between two or more people • Game analysis – understanding transactions that lead to bad feelings • Script analysis – understand a person’s life plan Role of a Counsellor: The counsellor initially plays the role of a teacher. The counsellor helps the client obtain the tools necessary for change in the present. Counsellors work contractually on solving ‘here and now’ problems and focuses on creating productive problem solving behaviours. Using transactional analysis, counsellors establish an egalitarian, safe and mutually respectful working relationship with their clients. This working relationship provides tools which the clients can utilise in their day to day functions to improve the quality of their lives. Goals: The primary goal of TA focuses on helping clients transform themselves from ‘frogs’ into ‘princes and princesses’. Others goals are: • to learn the language and concepts underlying Transactional analysis, • to learn analyse relationships with one another in terms of TA, and • to develop our ability to engage in straight, effective communication with one another on a daily basis. Techniques: TA has initiated a number of techniques for helping clients to reach their goals. The most common are structural analysis, transactional analysis, game analysis and script analysis. Other techniques include: Treatment Contract, Interrogation, Specification, Confrontation, Explanation, Illustration, Confirmation, Interpretation and Crystallisation. Q5. What do you mean by Ethics? Ans. Some years ago, sociologist Raymond Baumhart asked business people, ʺWhat do ethics mean to you?ʺ Among their replies were the following:
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Counselling Psychology [MPCE-021]
(1) ʺEthics has to do with what my feelings tell me is right or wrong.ʺ (2) ʺEthics has to do with my religious beliefs.ʺ (3) ʺBeing ethical is doing what the law requires.ʺ (4) ʺEthics consists of the standards of behaviour our society accepts.ʺ (5) ʺI donʹt know what the word means.ʺ These replies might be typical of our own. The meaning of ‘ethics’ is hard to pin down, and the views many people have about ethics are shaky. Like Baumhart’s first respondent, many people tend to equate ethics with their feelings. But being ethical is clearly not a matter of following oneʹs feelings. A person following his or her feelings may recoil from doing what is right. In fact, feelings frequently deviate from what is ethical. Nor should one identify ethics with religion. Most religions, of course, advocate high ethical standards. Yet if ethics were confined to religion, then ethics would apply only to religious people. But ethics applies as much to the behaviour of the atheist as to that of the devout religious person. Religion can set high ethical standards and can provide intense motivations for ethical behaviour. Ethics, however, cannot be confined to religion nor is it the same as religion. Being ethical is also not the same as following the law. The law often incorporates ethical standards to which most citizens subscribe. But laws, like feelings, can deviate from what is ethical. Our own pre‐Civil War slavery laws and the old apartheid laws of present‐day South Africa are grotesquely obvious examples of laws that deviate from what is ethical. Finally, being ethical is not the same as doing ‘whatever society accepts’. In any society, most people accept standards that are, in fact, ethical. But standards of behaviour in society can deviate from what is ethical. An entire society can become ethically corrupt. Nazi Germany is a good example of a morally corrupt society. Moreover, if being ethical were doing ‘whatever society accepts’, then to find out what is ethical, one would have to find out what society accepts. To decide what I should think about abortion, for example, I would have to take a survey of American society and then confirm my beliefs to whatever society accepts. But no one ever tries to decide an ethical issue by doing a survey. Further, the lack of social consensus on many issues makes it impossible to equate ethics with whatever society accepts. Some people accept abortion but many others do not. If being ethical were doing whatever society accepts, one would have to find an agreement on issues which does not, in fact, exist.
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What, then, is ethics? Ethics is two things. First, ethics refers to well‐ founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. Ethics, for example, refers to those standards that impose the reasonable obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, and fraud. Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, and loyalty. And, ethical standards include standards relating to rights, such as the right to life, the right to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy. Such standards are adequate standards of ethics because they are supported by consistent and well‐ founded reasons. Secondly, ethics refers to the study and development of oneʹs ethical standards. As mentioned above, feelings, laws, and social norms can deviate from what is ethical. So it is necessary to constantly examine oneʹs standards to ensure that they are reasonable and well‐founded. Ethics also means, then, the continuous effort of studying our own moral beliefs and our moral conduct, and striving to ensure that we, and the institutions we help to shape, live up to standards that are reasonable and solidly‐based. Q6. Discuss the various ethical principles of counselling. (Dec. 2016) Or Discuss the ethical principles of counselling. (June 2017) Ans. Kitchener (1984) has identified five moral principles which often help to clarify the issues involved in a given situation. The five principles are: autonomy, justice, beneficence, non‐malfeasance. Being Trustworthy (Fidelity): It involves the notions of loyalty, faithfulness, and honoring commitments. Being trustworthy is regarded as fundamental to understanding and resolving ethical issues. Practitioners who adopt this principle: act in accordance with the trust placed in them; strive to ensure that clients’ expectations are ones that have reasonable prospects of being met; honor their agreements and promises; regard confidentiality as an obligation arising from the client’s trust; restrict any disclosure of confidential information about clients to furthering the purposes for which it was originally disclosed. Autonomy: The essence of this principle is allowing an individual the freedom of choice and action. This principle emphasises the importance of developing a client’s ability to be self‐directing within therapy and all aspects of life. It addresses the responsibility of the counsellor to encourage clients, when appropriate, to make their own decisions and to act on their own values. There are two important considerations in encouraging clients to be autonomous. First, helping the client to understand how their
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decisions and their values may or may not be received within the context of the society in which they live, and how they may impinge on the rights of others. The second consideration is related to the client’s ability to make sound and rational decisions. The principle of autonomy opposes the manipulation of clients against their will, even for beneficial social ends. Beneficence: The principle of beneficence means acting in the best interests of the client based on professional assessment. Beneficence reflects the counsellor’s responsibility to contribute to the welfare of the client. Simply stated it means to do good, to be proactive and also to prevent harm when possible (Forester‐Miller & Rubenstein, 1992). It directs attention to working strictly within one’s limits of competence and providing services on the basis of adequate training or experience. There is an obligation to use regular and on‐going supervision to enhance the quality of the services provided and to commit to updating practice by continuing professional development. An obligation to act in the best interests of a client may become paramount when working with clients whose capacity for autonomy is diminished because of immaturity, lack of understanding, extreme distress, serious disturbance or other significant personal constraints. Non‐malfeasance: Non‐malfeasance is the concept of not causing harm to others. Often explained as ‘above all do no harm’, this principle is considered by some to be the most critical of all the principles, even though theoretically they are all of equal weight (Kitchener, 1984; Rosenbaum, 1982; Stadler, 1986). This principle reflects both the idea of not inflicting intentional harm, and not engaging in actions that risk harming others (Forester‐Miller & Rubenstein, 1992). Non‐malfeasance involves avoiding sexual, financial, and emotional or any other form of client exploitation; avoiding incompetence or malpractice; not providing services when unfit to do so due to illness, personal circumstances or intoxication. The practitioner has an ethical responsibility to strive to mitigate any harm caused to a client even when the harm is unavoidable or unintended. Justice: The principle of justice requires being just and fair to all clients and respecting their human rights and dignity. Justice does not mean treating all individuals the same. Kitchener (1984) points out that the formal meaning of justice is “treating equals equally and unequals unequally but in proportion to their relevant differences” (p.49). It directs attention to considering conscientiously any legal requirements and obligations, and remaining alert to potential conflicts between legal and ethical obligations. Practitioners have a duty to strive to ensure a fair provision of counselling and psychotherapy services, accessible and appropriate to the needs of
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potential clients. If an individual is to be treated differently, the counsellor needs to be able to offer a rationale that explains the necessity and appropriateness of treating this individual differently. Q7. Describe the counselling techniques based on operant conditioning method. Ans. Operant conditioning is a type of behaviour therapy. Also known as instrumental conditioning, it is a type of learning in which an individualʹs behaviour is modified by its consequences. In other words, it is the process by which humans (and other animals) learn to behave in such a way as to obtain rewards (or reinforcers) and avoid punishments. The distinction between classical and operant conditioning rests on whether the animal only observes the relationships between events in the world (as in classical conditioning), or whether it also has some control over their occurrence (as in operant conditioning). In the latter, outcomes such as food or shocks are contingent on the animalʹs behaviour, whereas in the former these occur regardless of the animalʹs actions. Two individuals were most instrumental in the development of operant conditioning. Edward L. Thorndike, who observed the behaviour of cats trying to escape from homemade puzzle boxes, was the first to extensively study operant conditioning. When first constrained in the boxes, the cats took a long time to escape. With experience, successful responses occurred more frequently, enabling the cats to escape in less time over successive trials. In his law of effect, Thorndike theorised that behaviours followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated, and those that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. B.F. Skinnerʹs work is most frequently cited in connection with operant conditioning. Skinner rejected Thorndikeʹs reference to unobservable mental states such as satisfaction, building his analysis on observable behaviour and its equally observable consequences. To implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber in which subjects such as pigeons and rats were isolated from extraneous stimuli and free to make one or two simple, repeated responses. Q8. Explain operant conditioning treatments. (June 2017) Ans. The term behaviour modification refers to treatment techniques that apply operant conditioning procedures in an attempt to increase or decrease a specific behaviour like positive reinforcement, extinction, negative reinforcement, or punishment. Positive Reinforcement: When a behavioural response is followed by a generally rewarding event, such as food, avoidance of pain, or praise, it
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Counselling Psychology [MPCE-021]
tends to be strengthened and to occur more frequently than before the reward. This principle has been applied in a variety of situations. In the inpatient hospital wards, patients with mental disorder receive a reward for performing a desired behaviour, such as tokens that they can use to purchase luxury items or certain privileges. The process, known as token economy, has successfully altered undesirable behaviours to desirable behaviours. Flooding: Flooding, sometimes called implosion, is similar to graded exposure in that it involves exposing the patient to the feared object in vivo; however, there is no hierarchy. It is based on the premise that escaping from an anxiety provoking experience reinforces the anxiety through conditioning. Thus, clinicians can extinguish the anxiety and prevent the conditioned avoidance behaviour by not allowing patients to escape the situation. Participant Modeling: In participant modeling, patients learn a new behaviour by imitation, primarily by observation, without having to perform the behaviour until they feel ready. Learning by watching others’ behaviour is also called Observational learning. Just as irrational fears can be acquired by learning, they can be unlearned by observing a fearless model confront the feared object. The technique has been useful with phobic children who are placed with other children of their own age and sex who approach the feared object or situation. Assertiveness Training: Assertive behaviour enables a person to act in his or her own best interest, to stand up for herself or himself without undue anxiety, to express honest feelings comfortably, and to exercise personal rights without denying the rights of others. Social Skills Training: Social skills training have been found to be efficacious for depression and schizophrenics. These training programmes cover skills in the following areas: conversation, conflict management, assertiveness, community living, friendship and dating, work and vocation, and medication management. Q9. Describe the goals of vocational counselling. (June 2016) Ans. The choice of a vocation is one of the crucial decisions in one’s life. It determines the type of people one would work with, the nature of the environment in which one would work and the type of work one is going to do. All these should commensurate with the type of person one is, i.e. the abilities, interests, aspirations, attitudes and the values one has and the particular situation and family environment one has. Hence a career should be chosen with utmost care, thought and planning. However, it is often found that this crucial decision is taken very lightly and not enough
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consideration and planning is given to it. Since it has a significant repercussion on the future life affecting one’s own and his family’s happiness, vocational counselling is the need of the hour. Vocational counselling should be an integral part of the total educational process. Some goals of vocational counselling can be listed as follows: • Helping Student in Reaching Optimal Development: A student at secondary level has interest in reading about and in investigating various occupations. School can do a lot to develop this interest, e.g. a boy shows interest in mechanics. Simple machine may be given to him, which he may open, and put the parts together. He may be interested in getting knowledge of the underlying principals used in the machine. Information about the mechanical processes may be passed on to him by taking him to the factory and workshops. Interests, which have a vocational values, should thus be encouraged in all possible ways. • Helping Student Learn Effective Decision‐making Skills: One can be expected to learn decision‐making skills only when one has complete information about his own capacities and weaknesses and also the information of vocational field of his choice. Skill in making a decision comes through following certain steps. He should learn to withhold a decision until he has examined all aspects of situation, that is, he must consider his own abilities and the world of work around him. He must arrive at a complete knowledge of the occupational fields of his choice through his own efforts. He should be able to reject all advice and information offered to him by his superiors and come to his own decision. The counsellor’s responsibility is to enable the student in this decision making. • Helping Student in Selecting Maturely and Objectively a Vocation: Once the student is able to decide independently what occupation he/she should follow, they can benefit from the assistance given to them for selecting the best vocation. The counsellor helps the student in choosing the career/vocation according to the interest, qualification etc. Q10. Analyze drama therapy as a significant technique of counselling. Or Discuss the techniques of drama therapy. (June 2016) Ans. Drama therapy is a type of psychological therapy that allows you to explore emotional difficulties through the medium of drama. This could
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