Jammu & Kashmir For Civil Services, JKSSB, JKPSC and other related Examinations Vol. I

Second Edition

Mukesh Kr. Sharma

NOTION PRESS

ISBN: 9798887175614 This book has been published to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. While the author has used his best efforts in preparing this book, he makes no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and author cannot be held responsible if an error is found or has been committed. No part of this book shall be used, reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the author, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. Neither the Publisher nor the Author endorse or approve the Content of this book or guarantee the reliability, accuracy or completeness of the Content published herein and do not make any representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, including but not limited to the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose. The Publisher or the Author shall not be liable whatsoever for any errors, omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause or claims for loss or damages of any kind, including without limitation, indirect or consequential loss or damage arising out of use, inability to use, or about the reliability, accuracy or sufficiency of the information contained in this book. E&OE. © Mukesh Kr. Sharma | भारत

Jammu & Kashmir (Vol. I) First Edition: July, 2021 Second Edition: June, 2022

यदा यदा हि धर्मस्य ग्लाहिर्मवहि र्ारि । अभ्युत्थािर्धर्मस्य िदात्र्ािं सृजाम्यिर््‌ ॥ (७) पररत्राणाय साधिू ां हविाशाय च दष्ु कृ िार््‌ । धर्मसस्ं थापिाथामय सम्र्वाहर् यगु े यगु े ॥ (८) - श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता अध्याय ४ - ज्ञान कमम सन्यास योग Whenever there is a decline of righteousness, and the rise of unrighteousness, then I re-incarnate myself, O descendant of Bharata. (7) To liberate the seekers of truth, to take the power away from the wicked ones and to re-establish the way of the human principles, I do appear age after age. (8) - Shrimadbhagwadgita Chapter 4-GyanKarmSanyasYog

Dedicated to My grandfather Late Sh. Prem N. Sharma

Table of Contents Jammu & Kashmir (Vol. I) 1. Jammu & Kashmir: Our Past .......................................... 1 1.1 The Erstwhile State of Jammu and Kashmir ................. 2 1.2 History of Jammu & Kashmir (Including Ladakh) ......... 5 History of Kashmir ..................................................................... 10 History of Jammu ...................................................................... 28 History of Ladakh ....................................................................... 37 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 43

2. Strengthening Grassroot Democracy ....................... 60 2.1 Jammu & Kashmir Panchayati Raj Act, 1989 ............... 63 2.2 Jammu & Kashmir Panchayati Raj Rules, 1996 ........... 93 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 105

3. Jammu & Kashmir: Heritage & Culture .................... 121 3.1 The People .......................................................................... 122 3.2 The Cuisine ......................................................................... 123 3.3 The Heritage ...................................................................... 126 3.4 The Language & Literature ............................................ 129 3.5 The Culture ........................................................................ 139 Art & Craft .................................................................................. 140 Folk Dance Forms & Music.................................................... 144 Fairs & Festivals......................................................................... 152 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 158

4. Jammu & Kashmir: Geography.................................. 165 4.1 Geography of Jammu and Kashmir: Introduction .. 166 4.2 Jammu and Kashmir: Physiography ............................ 169 4.3 Jammu and Kashmir: Mountain Ranges & Passes .. 174 4.4 Jammu and Kashmir: Soils and Minerals ................... 177 4.5 Jammu and Kashmir: Climate ...................................... 183 4.6 Jammu and Kashmir: Agriculture & Irrigation ......... 187 4.7 Jammu and Kashmir: Drainage System .................... 202 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 226

5. Jammu & Kashmir: Flora & Fauna ............................. 241 5.1 Jammu and Kashmir: Flora ......................................... 242 5.2 Jammu and Kashmir: Fauna ......................................... 252 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 268

Map: Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir ................ 276

Table of Contents Jammu & Kashmir (Vol. II) 6. Jammu & Kashmir: Polity ........................................... 278 6.1 Jammu & Kashmir Polity: The Past .............................. 279 Party System in Jammu & Kashmir .......................... 288

6.2 Jammu & Kashmir Polity: The Present ...................... 292 J&K Reorganisation Act, 2019 ................................. 292 J&K Administrative System ......................................... 303 J&K Delimitation Commission ................................... 306 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 308

7. Jammu & Kashmir: Economy ................................... 320 7.1 Jammu and Kashmir: Energy Resources ................... 321 7.2 Jammu and Kashmir: Industries .................................. 332 7.3 Jammu and Kashmir: Transport & Communication 342 7.4 Indus Water Treaty (1960) ............................................ 359 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 360

8. Jammu & Kashmir: Places to Visit ............................. 366 8.1 Jammu and Kashmir: Tourist Places ........................... 367 Forts & Palaces in Jammu Region ............................ 370 Tourist Places Jammu Region ................................... 379 Forts & Palaces in Kashmir Region........................... 389 Tourist Places Kashmir Region .................................. 391

8.2 Jammu and Kashmir: Religious Places ....................... 406 Religious Places in Jammu Region........................... 406 Religious Places in Kashmir Region ......................... 424 Buddhist Monuments in J&K and Ladakh............. 432 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 437

9. Jammu & Kashmir: Districts ........................................ 451 9.1 Jammu and Kashmir: District Profiles ......................... 452 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 516

10. Jammu & Kashmir: Miscellaneous ........................ 527 10.1 Jammu and Kashmir: Popular Personalities ......... 528 10.2 Jammu and Kashmir: Sports ....................................... 537 10.3 District Good Governance Index (DGGI) ............... 543 PRACTICE QUESTIONS / 546

Map: Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir ................ 550

Preface to second edition To begin with, this book remains a focused reference book for examination centric content in a single source for a wide ranging subjects like History, Geography, Polity, Economy, Culture, and Panchayati Raj of UT of J&K. Once I got started working on second edition, I realized that this would require a complete rewrite. Like the first edition, this book is also available in two Volumes. My primary goals in preparing this second edition are the following: • Update and expand texts and references, especially in history part of the book which includes various new sections such as elaborate history of Jammu, more elaborated text on various rulers such as Lalitaditya, Avantivarman, Akbar, Zain-ul-Abidin, Gulab Singh etc. • Add a chapter devoted to District Good Governance Index. • Significantly expand the chapter on Polity of Jammu & Kashmir. To add a section on Delimitation Commission in general and report of Delimitation Commission of Jammu and Kashmir in particular. • Expand and simplify the J&K Reorganisation Act, 2019 provided with umpteen number of solved Model MCQs which the first edition lacks. • Significantly expand the Chapter on Geography of Jammu and Kashmir. To update the content w.r.t. Climate, Crops, Drainage, ISFR 2021, IUCN status, etc. • Update the content w.r.t. Awards and Honours covered in the first edition. • Divide the Multiple-Choice Questions in two parts viz. Questions from previous papers and Model MCQs. • Add new and updated Model MCQ keeping in mind the dynamic trend of the examinations pertaining to JKPSC and JKSSB in particular. • Update and add information provided under Chapter District Profiles of Union territory of Jammu & Kashmir. • Correct, clarify, and simplify the various parts of the text of the first edition. • Correct typographical and minor chronological errors. However, since this volume has been entirely re-typeset, I beg the reader’s indulgence for any new typos that have been introduced. • Add Index and Map of Jammu and Kashmir to each volume of this book. No book is ever free from error or incapable of being improved. I would be delighted to receive comments, feedback, and corrections from the readers. भारत

June, 2022

Mukesh Kr. Sharma

Chapter 1 Jammu & Kashmir: Our Past

Erstwhile State of J&K History of Kashmir

Our Past History of Jammu History of Ladakh

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1.1 The Erstwhile State of Jammu and Kashmir

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he Treaty of Amritsar between the British Government and Maharaja Gulab Singh, signed on March 16, 1846, created a new political and geographical entity - the erstwhile State of Jammu and Kashmir. The Treaty handed over the control of the erstwhile Kashmir State to the Dogra ruler, Gulab Singh of Jammu, who was already controlling the Ladakh region. Thus, the new State comprised of three distinct regions - Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh was formed. The erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir State constituted the northern most extremity of India. Strategically located between 32.17 degrees and 36.58 degrees North latitude and 73.26 degrees and 80.30 degrees East longitude, the total area of the erstwhile State was 2, 22, 236 sq. km which includes 78114 sq. km under illegal occupation of Pakistan and 5180 sq. km illegally handed over by Pakistan to China and 37555 sq. km under illegal occupation of China in Leh (Ladakh). The erstwhile State was bounded by China in the East and North, Afghanistan in the North-West and Pakistan in the West. The Southern boundary was contiguous with Himachal Pradesh and Gurdaspur District of Punjab. The northern and eastern areas of the State were occupied by series of Mount Austin Godwin, the second highest peak of the world with height of 28265 feet. As a former Princely State, Jammu and Kashmir was one of the 565 princely States of India on which the British paramountcy lapsed at the stroke of mid-night on August 15, 1947. On independence, the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir then ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, elected to accede to the Union of India by signing an Instrument of Accession. The Instrument of Accession was executed and signed by the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh and the Governor General of India, Lord Mountbatten on October 26/27, 1947. The Maharaja announced a popular interim government on March 5, 1948 and appointed Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah as the Prime Minister. On June 20, 1949 when Maharaja Hari Singh had to leave the State for reasons of health, he appointed Yuvraj Karan Singh, his son, as Regent through a Proclamation issued on June 20, 1949. When India became a Republic, on January 26, 1950, Article 370 of the Constitution of India conferred a special status on the erstwhile State of Jammu and Kashmir. The Regent, as Head of the State, issued a Proclamation on May 1, 1951 directing formation of a Constituent Assembly of elected members. The Constituent Assembly after the Delhi Agreement elected the Regent, Yuvraj Karan Singh, as Sadar-i-Riyasat of the State on August 19, 1952. On May, 1954, the President of India issued the Constitution Order 1954 dated 14-5-1954 under Article 370 extending the Constitution of India to the State with exception and modifications contained in the order. On November 17, 1956, the State Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir declaring the State of Jammu and Kashmir to be an integral part of the Union of India. While the Constitution was adopted on January 26, 1957, Sections 3 & 4 of the Constitution came into force with immediate effect. By the 6th amendment to the erstwhile State Constitution adopted on March 28, 1965, the Sadar-i-Riyasat was re-designated as the Governor and the Prime Minister of the State as the Chief Minister. The erstwhile State of Jammu and

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Kashmir had the unique distinction of having its own Constitution and the Flag, unlike any other State of the Country. In the event of failure of Constitutional machinery in any of the States of the country, President's Rule is imposed under Article 356 of the Constitution of India. But, in the case of Jammu and Kashmir Governor's Rule for a period of six months is imposed under the provision of Section 92 of the State Constitution and the Proclamation to this effect is issued by the Governor only after the consent of the President of India has been received. The State Assembly is either kept in suspended animation or dissolved. If it is not possible to restore the Constitutional machinery before the expiry of this six months then, provisions of Article 356 of the Constitution of India are extended and President's rule is imposed in the State. The four principal rivers of erstwhile state are the Indus (Now in UT of Ladakh), the Jhelum, the Chenab and the Ravi. The State with its summer and winter capitals at Srinagar and Jammu, respectively, consisted of 22 districts, 10 in Kashmir Valley, 10 in Jammu Division and 2 in Ladakh. It has four geographical zones of sub- mountain and semi-mountain plain known as Kandi or dry belt, the Shivalik ranges, the high mountain zone constituting the Kashmir valley, Pir Panchal range and its off-shoots including Doda, Poonch and Rajouri districts and part of Kathua and Udhampur districts and the middle runs of the Indus River comprising Leh and Kargil. The climate varies from tropical in the Jammu plains to semi-arctic cold in Ladakh with Kashmir and Jammu mountainous tracts having temperate climate conditions. The annual rainfall also varies from region to region with 92.6 mm in Leh, 650.5 mm in Srinagar and 1115.9 mm in Jammu. The State is geologically constituted of rocks varying from the oldest period of the earth's history to the youngest present-day river and lake deposits. The State like old times now also is rich in art, culture and history and in archaeological and historical sites reflecting a glorious past. While Kashmir is said to have the oldest recorded history in the world, Jammu and Ladakh also find mention in the ancient history.

Map: Jammu and Kashmir – The erstwhile state Note: ‘Pakistan occupied Kashmir’ is an integral part of India, we have shown above map just to make our explanation easy. The erstwhile state shared a 221 km international boundary

with Pakistan in the Jammu region and 365 km with China along Ladakh. The Line of Control (LoC), which divides the Indian and Pak- parts of Jammu and

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Kashmir, was 1001 km long border (Jammu - 205 km, Valley - 460 km, and Ladakh/Siachen area -336 km). The erstwhile State’s border with China was 465 km long. The Chinese-held territory is called Aksai Chin (meaning un-inhabited). NOTE: After the Government of India repealed the special status accorded to erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution in 2019, the Parliament of India passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 which contained provisions that dissolved the state and reorganised it into two union territories – Jammu and Kashmir in the west and Ladakh in the east, with effect from 31 October, 2019. We will study about the various provisions of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 in Chapter ‘Jammu & Kashmir: Polity’ of Vol. II of this book. Erstwhile J&K State Flag: It was the only state in India with its own Flag designed by Govt. of India. The flag is a native plough on a red background which is a symbol of Labour. Three vertical stripes in the flag represent three administrative divisions of the erstwhile state. J&K State Emblem: The Strips in the J&K State Emblem represents the cultural regions of the state Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh. The ploughs and the two ears of corn represent the majority of the state population. The Lotus in the centre stands for the purity and knowledge. The new union territory of Jammu and Kashmir has not as yet adopted a distinct symbol for official use and instead uses the words ‘Government of Jammu and Kashmir’ on official documents either alone or in conjunction with the National Emblem of India. J&K State Flower: Lotus (N. nucifera) - the official State Flower. Lotus is the water plant. It has broad floating leaves and bright fragrant flowers. The leaves and flowers float and have long stems that contain air spaces. It has many petals overlapping in the symmetrical pattern. The root functions of the Lotus are carried out by rhizomes that fan out horizontally through the mud below the water. The round leaves are upto 50 cm in diameter. J&K State Tree: Chinar (also known as ‘Booune’ in Kashmiri) - the Official State Tree. Platanus orientalis, or oriental plane, is a large, deciduous tree of the deciduous tree of the Platanaceae family, growing to 30 m (98 ft.) or more, and known for its longevity and spreading crown. J&K State Animal: The Hangul or Kashmir Stag (Cervus elaphus banglu) – only surviving race of Red Deer in the Indian subcontinent. Dachigam is the home of Kashmir Stag. J&K UT Bird: Kalij Pheasant (Lophura leucomelanos) has been declared as bird of the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir. It is widely found particularly in Mansar, Surinsar, Jasrota and Bhaderwah areas of union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. NOTE: The erstwhile state of J&K had Blacked Necked Crane (Grus nogricollis) as the State Bird of J&K. *

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1.2 History of Jammu and Kashmir (Including Ladakh) THE HISTORY OF KASHMIR ashmir commands a strategic importance by virtue of its central position in the Asia as it stands on the old Central Asian Trade Route and the Kashmir Valley has, since ancient times, been the halting place of caravans travelling between the plains of India and high reaches of Central Asia. Kashmir fortunately possess an ancient history and the civilisation more ancient than our own. There are many legends of prehistoric times when the Valley of Kashmir was a vast lake. Here is one of their legends. According to the earliest traditional account this lake occupied the place of Kashmir Valley. A demon called Jallodbhava (water-born) resided in this lake. This demon caused great distress to all the neighbouring countries by his devastations. At last Kashyapa Muni implored Shiva to help him to kill the demon. His prayer was granted, and he succeeded in getting the demon killed, with the help of the gods, near Kounsarnag. Shiva made an exit near Baramulla with his trident, the water rushed out and the land thus produced became inhabitable.

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The Valley Nested securely among the Himalayas at an average height of 1829 m above the sea, valley is approximately 135 km in length 3o to 40 km in breadth. The mountains snows feed the river Jhelum and the streams and it is calculated that the Jhelum in its course through the Valley has catchment area of about 10,240 sq. km. Srinagar, the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir, situated in the centre of the valley stands on the bank of river Vitasta (Jhelum). One of the oldest cities in India, its history dates back to times of Ashoka. Srinagar with its numerous canals and adjacent Dal Lake is aptly called the ‘Venice of the East’ and is also the centre of trade and commerce. ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

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Origin Legend has it that Kashmir was actually a vast mountain lake called the Satisar (As per Nilamata-purana) and geologists attest to this. Volcanic actions may have formed the original lake or its subsequent desiccation. On the basis of one theory, the drainer of this lake was ascetic Kashyap Rishi; hence the word ‘Kash’ of Kashmir comes from name of Kashyap and valley came to be known as Kashyappur or Kashyapmar and later Kashmir. According to another theory, ‘Kash’ means Channel and ‘Mir’ means Mountain. In the Puranas, Kashmir is called gerek (hill) because of is overwhelming hilly features. The ancient Greek historian Ptolemy, also a mathematician and geographer in his book ‘Geographia’ called it "Kasperia," and in the classical literature Herodotus (Greek Historian, 450 BCE) mentions it as ‘Kaspatyros’ and Hekataios calls it by the name of Kaspalyros or Kaspapyros. It is called Shie-mi in the narrative of To Yeng and Sung-Yan (578 CE). Some other Chinese accounts referred to Kashmir as ‘ ki-pin or Chipin or Jipin and ache-pin’. Hiuen-Tsang (Chinese Pilgrim) who visited India during the reign of Harshvardhana came to valley from Urusha (Hazara) in the west in the 7th century CE (631 CE) and stayed here for two years to study Buddhist and

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▪ ▪ ▪

Sanskrit lore during the period of King Durlabha Vardhana of Kashmir, in his book “Si-Yu-Ki” of travels that he wrote on his return, called the valley of Kashmir as "Kia-shi-milo". Kashmir is known by many other names also. The Tibetans called its Khachal and Dards named it Kashrat. The Kashmiri in their own tongue call it Kashir or Kashur. The earliest text which directly mentions the name ‘Kashmir’ is in Ashtadhyayi written by Sanskrit Grammarian Panini during 5th century BCE. Cashmere is an archaic spelling of modern-day word Kashmir. SOURCES OF KASHMIR HISTORY

Sources of Kashmir History (early and medieval) can be divided into two broad categories: (A) The rich collection of indigenous records, traditions and archaeological and numismatic finds. (B) The notices in foreign chronicles, records of travellers and recent archaeological discoveries. (A) Historical Traditions: ▪ The Rajatarangini or ‘the river of Kings’: Written in Sanskrit verse by Kalhana in 1148-49 CE comprises of eight Cantos of Sanskrit verse the history of various dynasties which ruled Kashmir from the earliest down to the time of the author, who began to write his work in 1148 CE. The Rajatarangini observes J.L. Nehru “is a rich storehouse of information; political, social and to some extent economic”. Kalhana himself testified the existence of at least eleven earlier compositions which he consulted to write his own immortal Rajatarangini. These include: • • •

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▪

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Kshemendra’s Nrapavali Chronicles of Padmamihira and Chavillakaran Nilamata-purana,

Except Nilamata-purana, all eleven works of former scholars containing the chronicles of kings which he consulted are now lost. As early as the 15th century, King Zain-ul-Abidin had Rajatarangini translated into Persian by Mulla Ahmad. Later, under the orders from Akbar, Abul Fazl incorporated long abstracts in his ‘ Ain-i-Akbari’. Bernier who visited Kashmir in 1665 CE makes a mention of it in his ‘Letters’. Moorcraft obtained a copy of it during his visit to the valley in 1823 CE and this copy was translated into French by M. Troyer. Dr. Stein translated it in English in 1900 CE. In 1935 CE, R. S. Pandit brought out his English translation of Rajatarangini laying emphasis on its poetic and literary qualities. Kshemendra’s Nrapavali, Desopadesa, Narmamala, Lokaprakasha, Samyayamatarika: Nrapavali is now lost; Desopadesa depicts daily life of people of Kashmir-cheats, misers, students etc. Narmamala is a satirical poem on misrule and oppression prevalent in his times. Samyayamatarika- a poem intended to describe the snares of worldly temptations. Later Chronicles: • Kalhana’s work was continued by his countryman Jonaraja who brought the Chronicle down to the reign of King Zain-ul-Abidin (1420-70 CE).

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• • • •

Malik Haider Chaudura wrote history of Kashmir from earliest times to his times in Persian in 1617 CE. Narayan Kaul Aziz in his ‘Twarikh-i-Kashmir’ written in 1710 gives an assessment of reigns of Sultans and early Mughals from a Liberal point of view. Muhammad Azam Kaul - ‘Waquat-i-Kashmir’ (1746). Ghulam Mohi-ud-din Sufi – Kashir (1925).

(B) Foreign Notices: ▪ Ptolemy, a Greek historian, mathematician and geographer in his book ‘Geographia’ mentioned Kashmir as "Kasperia". ▪ Hekataios calls it by the name of Kaspalyros or Kaspapyros as the city of Gandharians. ▪ Herodotus (Greek Historian, 450 BCE) mentioned Kashmir as ‘Kaspatyros’. ▪ Hiuen-Tsang (Chinese Pilgrim) who visited India during the reign of Harshvardhana came to valley from Urusha (Hazara) in the west in the 7th century CE (631 CE) and stayed in Kashmir for two years to study Buddhist and Sanskrit lore during the period of King Durlabha Vardhana of Kashmir, in his book “Si-Yu-Ki” of travels that he wrote on his return, called the valley of Kashmir as "Kia-shi-milo". His narrative tells that he left the valley in 633 CE by the way of Tosa-Maidan route to reach modern day Poonch. Kashmir, Tsang, described as a country surrounded on all sides by very high mountains which have very narrow and contracted passes for entry. ▪ Alberuni in his work ‘India’. ▪ The first Europeans to visit Kashmir were Father Gerome Xavier and Benoist de Gois who appeared in the court of Akbar and accompanied the Emperor to Kashmir (During third visit of Akbar in 1598). Father Gerome Xavier published these details in 1605. The valley that time was under severe famine. ▪ F. Bernier who accompanied Aurangzeb to Kashmir in 1665 CE makes a mention of the route details from Delhi to Kashmir and habits of people in his famous ‘Letters’. ▪ Fredric Drew – ‘The Jamoo and Kashmir Territories’ (1875) ▪ Sir Walter Lawrence – ‘Valley of Kashmir’ (1895) ▪ Alexander Cunningham – ‘Ladakh’ is a mine of information on ‘land of Lamas’. KALHAN’S RAJTARANGINI (राजतर ं ग िणी) The 12th century CE Kashmiri poet, Kalhan, wrote ‘Rajtarangini’- the river of kings, which has been of great value for the study of the history of Kashmir. Very little is known about Kalhana. He was the son of Champaka, a minister in the employ of King Harsha of Lohara dynasty of Kashmir (1089-1101 CE). Champaka is referred in Rajatarangini as dvarapati or the Lord of the Gates; commander of the frontier troops. It is possible that Kalhana was born in Parihaspora now known as Paraspore in the Baramulla district of UT of Jammu & Kashmir. All information regarding his life has to be deduced from his own writing, a major scholar of which is Mark Aurel Stein. Robin Donkin has argued

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that with the exception of Kalhana, "there are no [native Indian] literary works with a developed sense of chronology, or indeed much sense of place, before the thirteenth century". ▪ Rajtarangini ("The River of Kings") is a historical chronicle of the northwestern Indian subcontinent, particularly the kings of Kashmir. ▪ It was written in Sanskrit in the 12th century CE (between 1148 and 1149 CE), during Jaisimha’s reign of Lohara Dynasty, it consists of 7826 verses, which are divided into eight books called Tarangas ("waves"). ▪ Kalhana himself testified the existence of at least eleven earlier compositions which he consulted to write his own immortal Rajtarangini. These include: • Kshemendra’s Nrapavali • Chronicles of Padmamihira and Chavillakaran • Nilamata-purana, ▪ Except Nilamata-purana, all eleven works of former scholars containing the chronicles of kings which he consulted are now lost. ▪ The Rajtaringini provides the earliest source on Kashmir that can be labelled as a "historical" text on this region. Although inaccurate in its chronology, the book still provides an invaluable source of information about early Kashmir and its neighbours in the north western parts of the Indian subcontinent, and has been widely referenced by later historians and ethnographers. ▪ Of the eight books or Tarangas, the earlier ones primarily draw from the Itihaas-Purana tradition. The middle ones are drawn from various sources; the later ones, which deal with the 8th-12th century history of Kashmir, are the most accurate. ▪ Book-I attempts to draw imaginary tales of Kashmir kings into epic legends. Gonanda-I was the first king and a contemporary and enemy of the Hindu deity Krishna. Traces of genuine history are also found, however, in references to the Mauryan emperors Ashoka and Jalauka; the Buddhist Kushan kings Hushka (Huviska), Jushka (Vajheska), and Kanishka (Kaniska); and Mihirkula, a Huna king. ▪ Book II introduces a new line of kings not mentioned in any other authentic source, starting with Pratapaditya I and ending with Aryaraja. ▪ Book III starts with an account of the reign of Meghavahana of the restored line of Gonanda and refers to the brief reign of Matrigupta, a supposed contemporary of Vikramaditya Harsha of Malwa. The book closes with the establishment of the Karkota Naga dynasty by Durlabhaka Pratapaditya II, and it is from Book IV on that Rajatarangini takes on the character of a dependable historical narrative. ▪ The Karkota line came to a close with the usurpation of the throne by Avantivarman, who started the Utpala dynasty in 855 CE. ▪ In Books V and VI the history of the dynasty continues to 1003 CE, when the kingdom of Kashmir passed on to a new dynasty, the Lohara. ▪ Book VII brings the narrative to the death of King Harsha (1101CE), and ▪ Book VIII deals with the events between the death of Harsha and the stabilization of authority under Kalhana’s contemporary Jayasimha (reigned 1128–49CE).

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