The role of time in consumer behaviour and market segmentation. Three contributions from a multidisciplinary perspective

Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha Departamento de Administración de Empresas Área de Comercialización e Investigación de Mercados The role of time in

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Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha Departamento de Administración de Empresas Área de Comercialización e Investigación de Mercados

The role of time in consumer behaviour and market segmentation. Three contributions from a multidisciplinary perspective

El papel del tiempo en el comportamiento del consumidor y la segmentación de mercados. Tres contribuciones desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar

Juan Antonio García Martín Director: Arturo Molina Collado

Talavera de la Reina, 2014

Time is one of the most powerful influence on our thoughts, feelings, and actions, yet we are usually totally unaware of the effect of time in our lives.

Philip G. Zimbardo & John N. Boyd

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION ABSTRACT The role of time in consumer behaviour and market segmentation. Three contributions from a multidisciplinary perspective Time has been the subject of numerous studies in multiple disciplines such as economics, education, geography, psychology, and sociology. All human actions related to consumption involve the allocations of time and money. However, in marketing literature, far more attention has been paid to the latter than to the former. This doctoral thesis adopts an interdisciplinary approach in order to describe the role of time in consumer behaviour and market segmentation. It also considers both objective measures of time use (Studies 1-3) and subjective measures related to time perspective (Study 3). The objective of the first study is to identify and describe the time use patterns of Spanish consumers at weekends. The data used have been obtained from the Time Use Survey collected by the Spanish National Statistics Institute. The results obtained reveal the existence of nine segments or clusters which are different, not only with regard to their propensity to engage in each activity and the average time allocated to this (what), but also their sociodemographic profiles (who) and the timing or activity rhythms (when). This study provides information for leisure-related businesses since it may enable them to organise their leisure proposals/activities for weekends (as regards both duration and schedules), bearing in mind the specific consumer profile that they wish to attract. The objective of the second study is to evaluate the effectiveness and profitability of time use in a destination as a segmentation criterion in tourism. The empirical analysis took place in the historic city of Toledo (Spain), and was based on information obtained from 799 day-trippers and tourists. The results obtained reveal the existence of four segments as regards day-trippers and another four as regards tourists. What is more, there are significant differences in the spending and future intentions of the clusters of day-trippers and tourists. Lastly, the objective of the third study is to explore the role of five time perspectives (past-negative, past-positive, present-fatalistic, present-hedonistic, and future) and having a balanced time perspective on the amount of free time available, leisure benefits sought and leisure activities. The results obtained from a sample of 320 undergraduate and Master’s degree students from the University of Castilla-La Mancha show that how they understand time is a key predictor of their leisure choices. This study also reveals that having a balanced time perspective is a healthy way to enjoy leisure time. The doctoral thesis is organised in five chapters. The first introductory chapter presents an overview of the state of research regarding time from a multidisciplinary perspective. The second, third, and fourth chapters present the three aforementioned empirical studies, while in the fifth chapter a summary of this doctoral thesis’s contributions is provided.

5

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN RESUMEN El papel del tiempo en el comportamiento del consumidor y la segmentación de mercados. Tres contribuciones desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar

El tiempo ha sido objeto de numerosos estudios en varias disciplinas como la economía, la educación, la geografía, la psicología y la sociología. Todas las acciones humanas relacionadas con el consumo implican la asignación de tiempo y dinero. Sin embargo, en la literatura de marketing, se ha prestado mucha más atención a este último recurso que al primero. Esta tesis doctoral adopta un enfoque multidisciplinar con el fin de describir el papel del tiempo en el comportamiento del consumidor y la segmentación de mercados. Además, considera tanto medidas objetivas de utilización del tiempo (Estudios 1-3) como medidas subjetivas relacionadas con la perspectiva temporal (Estudio 3). El objetivo del primer estudio es identificar y describir los patrones de uso del tiempo de los consumidores españoles durante los fines de semana. Los datos utilizados se obtuvieron de la Encuesta de Empleo del Tiempo del Instituto Nacional de Estadística de España. Los resultados obtenidos ponen de manifiesto la existencia de nueve segmentos o grupos que son diferentes, no sólo en su propensión a participar en cada actividad y el tiempo asignado a ésta (qué), sino también en sus perfiles sociodemográficos (quién) y ritmos de actividad (cuándo). Este estudio proporciona información para los negocios relacionados con el ocio, ya que puede ser de utilidad para ayudar a organizar sus propuestas o actividades durante los fines de semana (en cuanto a duración y horarios), teniendo presente el perfil específico de consumidores que desean atraer. El objetivo del segundo estudio es evaluar la eficacia y la rentabilidad del uso del tiempo en un destino como criterio de segmentación en turismo. El análisis empírico se llevó a cabo en la ciudad histórica de Toledo (España), y se basó en la información obtenida de 799 excursionistas y turistas. Los resultados obtenidos revelan la existencia de cuatro segmentos de excursionistas y otros cuatro de turistas. Además, existen diferencias significativas en el gasto y las intenciones de comportamiento futuras de los distintos grupos de excursionistas y turistas. Por último, el objetivo del tercer estudio es explorar cómo cada una de las cinco perspectivas temporales (pasado-negativo, pasado-positivo, presente-fatalista, presente-hedonista y futuro) consideradas y el hecho de tener una perspectiva temporal equilibrada influyen sobre la cantidad de tiempo libre disponible, los beneficios buscados con el ocio y las actividades de ocio realizadas. Los resultados obtenidos a partir de una muestra de 320 estudiantes de Grado y Máster de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha muestran que la forma en qué se entiende el tiempo es un indicador clave de las decisiones de ocio. Este estudio también sugiere que el hecho de tener una perspectiva temporal equilibrada es una forma saludable de disfrutar del tiempo libre. La tesis doctoral se estructura en cinco capítulos. En el primer capítulo introductorio se presenta una visión general del estado de la investigación en relación con el tiempo desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar. En los capítulos segundo, tercero y cuatro se presentan los tres estudios empíricos anteriormente mencionados, mientras que en el quinto capítulo se ofrece un resumen de las principales contribuciones de esta tesis doctoral.

6

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION: THE TIME RESEARCH IN A NUTSHELL

CHAPTER 2.

TIME USE PATTERNS OF SPANISH CONSUMERS AT WEEKENDS: IN SEARCH OF WHAT, WHO AND WHEN

19

35

2.1.

Introduction

35

2.2.

Literature review

37

2.2.1.

The role of time in consumer behaviour: a brief review

37

2.2.2.

From lifestyle segmentation to market segmentation based on time

2.2.3. 2.3.

2.4.

39

Heterogeneity in time use and its determinants

40

Method

43

2.3.1.

Data and sample profile

43

2.3.2.

Instruments

45

2.3.3.

Data analysis

45

Results 2.4.1.

2.5.

use

46 Number of time-use patterns and usefulness of the indicators and covariates

46

2.4.2.

Profiles of clusters: in search of what and who

51

2.4.3.

Activity rhythms: in search of when

58

Discussion and conclusions

60

7

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN CHAPTER 3.

MARKET SEGMENTATION BASED ON TIME USE: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS IN THE HISTORIC CITY OF TOLEDO, SPAIN

65

3.1.

Introduction

65

3.2.

Literature review

66

3.2.1.

The key role of time use: from marketing and leisure to tourism

66

3.2.2.

Market heterogeneity: towards a tourism market segmentation based on

3.2.3. 3.3.

3.4.

3.5.

time use

69

Time use, tourist experience and outcomes

72

Method

73

3.3.1.

Data collection and sample profile

73

3.3.2.

Instruments

74

3.3.3.

Data analysis

76

Results

78

3.4.1.

Market segmentation based on time use

78

3.4.2.

Differences in outcome variables

84

Discussion and conclusions

CHAPTER 4.

87

EXPLORING THE ROLE OF TIME PERSPECTIVE IN LEISURE CHOICES

93

4.1.

Introduction

93

4.2.

Literature review

94

4.2.1.

94

8

Time perspective

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION

4.3.

4.4.

4.2.2.

Balanced time perspective

98

4.2.3.

Time perspective and leisure choices

99

Method

104

4.3.1.

Data collection and sample profile

104

4.3.2.

Instruments

105

4.3.3.

Data analysis

106

Results 4.4.1.

107 Confirmatory factor analyses: time perspectives and leisure benefits sought

4.4.2.

4.5.

107

Relationship between time perspectives and the amount of free time available

109

4.4.3.

Relationship between time perspectives and leisure benefits sought

110

4.4.4.

Relationship between time perspectives and leisure activities

111

4.4.5.

Relationship between a balanced time perspective and leisure choice 117

Discussion and conclusions

CHAPTER 5.

CONCLUSIONS

118 127

REFERENCES

133

APPENDIX A

159

APPENDIX B

161

APPENDIX C

165

9

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN APPENDIX D

169

APPENDIX E

171

VITA

173

10

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION LIST OF TABLES

Tabla 1.1.

Interés por el estudio de aspectos objetivos del tiempo según área temática entre 2008 y 2012: revistas académicas disponibles en Google Scholar

Tabla 1.2.

Interés por el estudio de aspectos subjetivos del tiempo según área temática entre 2008 y 2012: revistas académicas disponibles en Google Scholar

Table 2.1.

26

Main studies concerning consumer segmentation on the basis of temporal dimensions

Table 2.2.

24

38

Socio-demographic profile: comparison between original and filtered weekend samples

44

Table 2.3.

Statistics for the latent class cluster models of Spanish consumers

46

Table 2.4.

Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators

Table 2.5.

47

Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: covariates 49

Table 2.6.

Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators

53

Table 2.7.

Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: significant covariates

55

Table 2.8.

Differences in multi-tasking style and computer/Internet use between clusters of Spanish consumers

Table 2.9.

Tests of independence between cluster membership of Spanish consumers and kind of day

Table 3.1.

57

58

Criteria/bases and evolution of tourism segmentation studies published between 2008 and 2012: tourism journals indexed in 2011 Journal Citation Report Social Sciences Edition®

70

11

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 3.2.

Non-parametric Spearman correlations between time allocated to each activity by day-trippers and tourists

Table 3.3.

75

Results from confirmatory factor analysis: destination image, and intentions to revisit and recommend it

76

Table 3.4.

Statistics for the latent class cluster models of day-trippers and tourists 79

Table 3.5.

Estimated parameters for the four clusters of day-trippers

80

Table 3.6.

Estimated parameters for the four clusters of tourists

81

Table 3.7.

Profiles of clusters of day-trippers: indicators and significant covariates

82

Table 3.8.

Profiles of clusters of tourists: indicators and significant covariates

84

Table 3.9.

Differences in outcome variables between clusters of day-trippers

85

Table 3.10.

Differences in outcome variables between clusters of tourists

86

Table 4.1.

Time perspective scales

95

Table 4.2.

Time perspective dimensions and features

97

Table 4.3.

Results from confirmatory factor analysis: time perspectives

108

Table 4.4.

Results from confirmatory factor analysis: leisure benefits sought

109

Table 4.5.

Stepwise hierarchical regression analysis predicting the amount of free time available

Table 4.6.

Stepwise

110 hierarchical

regression

analyses

predicting

sought Table 4.7.

benefits 111

Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: test of parallel lines and goodness-of-fit

12

leisure

112

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 4.8.

Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: parameter estimates

114

Table 4.9.

Statistics for the latent class cluster models

117

Table 4.10.

Significance of the indicators and profiles for the two clusters

117

Table 4.11.

Synthesis of findings: the role of time perspective in leisure choices

122

13

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION LIST OF FIGURES

Figura 1.1.

Principales líneas de investigación en comportamiento del consumidor sobre los aspectos objetivos y subjetivos del tiempo

27

Figure 2.1.

Basic background factors in the model underlying activity participation

42

Figure 2.2.

Activity rhythms of each cluster of Spanish consumers

59

Figure 3.1.

Research propositions, analysis procedures, and software packages

77

Figure 4.1.

Research objectives

101

15

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION:

THE

TIME

RESEARCH IN A NUTSHELL

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION CHAPTER

1.

INTRODUCTION:

THE

TIME RESEARCH IN A NUTSHELL

entre población rural y urbana, como el primer gran proyecto internacional de investigación empírica sobre este tópico y el precursor de la multitud de encuestas de empleo del tiempo que posteriormente

Como Durán y Rogero (2009) señalan,

se han desarrollado en distintos países.

intentar definir qué es el ‘tiempo’ no es

En este sentido, el Centre for Time Use

una tarea tan sencilla como a priori

Research (CTUR) de la Universidad de

pudiera parecer. La última edición del

Oxford tiene registrada la realización de

Diccionario de la Real Academia Española

encuestas de uso del tiempo en casi 100

(2001)

países distintos (Fisher & Tucker, 2013) y

ofrece

diecisiete

acepciones

distintas de este término. Este dato, a

ofrece

medio camino entre lo curioso y lo

procedente de más de 60 bases de datos

revelador, ya proporciona una pista sobre

de 25 países distintos a través de su base

la

de datos denominada Multinational Time

enorme

interdisciplinariedad

existente en el estudio del tópico del tiempo.

De

encontrar

hecho,

múltiples

resulta

información

armonizada

Use Study (Fisher & Gershuny, 2013).

posible

definiciones

y

En cuanto al ritmo de vida, éste hace

enfoques a la hora de estudiar el tiempo

referencia a la velocidad con la que se

dependiendo de cuál sea la disciplina en

realizan

la que éste ha sido objeto de análisis.

estudio de Levine y Norenzayan (1999),

las

distintas

actividades.

El

centrado en analizar el ritmo de vida en McGrath y Tschan (2004) distinguen

31 países utilizando observaciones del

cuatro

los

comportamiento, encuentra que éste fue

vida

significativamente más rápido en climas

cotidiana de las personas: uso del tiempo,

más fríos, en países más desarrollados

ritmo de vida, percepción del tiempo y

económicamente

orientación temporal.

individualistas.

El primer aspecto, uso del tiempo,

Por su parte, la percepción del tiempo

representa cómo un individuo distribuye

se refiere a cómo los seres humanos

este recurso en la realización de distintas

juzgan el paso del tiempo, estudiando,

actividades diarias, tales como trabajar y

por ejemplo, las estimaciones que los

estudiar,

individuos

realizan

duración

percibida

procesos

aspectos

básicos

temporales

cuidados

domésticas

o

de

en la

personales,

tiempo

libre.

tareas Suele

y

en

culturas

sobre de

cuál

más

es

la

intervalos

considerarse el trabajo de Szalai (1972),

temporales específicos o sus sentimientos

centrado en analizar las diferencias en el

sobre el paso del tiempo (Grondin, 2008;

tiempo dedicado a actividades diarias

McGrath & Tschan, 2004).

19

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Por último, la orientación temporal,

largo plazo puede alcanzar un mayor

también

perspectiva

desarrollo económico estarían los tres

temporal, en inglés time perspective

siguientes: (1) una elevada importancia

(TP), se define como la importancia

del ahorro; (2) el ‘trabajo duro’ como un

relativa que los individuos otorgan al

aspecto

pasado, presente y futuro (Lennings,

detrimento del ocio; y (3) el mayor

1996).

sido

énfasis que se pone en la mejora de la

extensamente estudiado como un rasgo

educación de los individuos que forman

de la personalidad en psicología (Sircova

parte de esa sociedad.

denominada

Este

aspecto

ha

socialmente

valorado,

en

et al., 2014; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Además, la orientación temporal también

Los cuatro aspectos temporales descritos

puede ser entendida como una dimensión

anteriormente, uso del tiempo, ritmo de

cultural susceptible de ser utilizada para

vida, percepción del tiempo y orientación

evaluar las diferencias transculturales

temporal, se pueden agrupar, a su vez,

entre sociedades y explicar las razones

en dos grandes categorías. Por una

del

en

parte, la primera incluiría el uso del

cuestiones de tipo económico y/o social

tiempo y los ritmos de actividad, ya que

(Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010).

ambos aspectos tienen en común el

Así, por ejemplo, estos últimos autores

análisis del tiempo como un recurso

encuentran correlaciones positivas entre

susceptible de ser medido o cuantificado

el grado de orientación al largo plazo y el

objetivamente, atendiendo, por ejemplo,

crecimiento económico, en países que

a cuánto tiempo dedica cada sujeto a una

partían de un nivel inicial de desarrollo

actividad

más bajo, y correlaciones negativas entre

frecuencia de realización de la misma. Por

ambas variables, en el caso de los países

otra parte, la percepción del tiempo y

más desarrollados. En otras palabras, el

orientación temporal se pueden agrupar

grado de orientación al largo plazo de una

en una segunda categoría, puesto que

sociedad parece ser un factor que se

suponen el análisis del tiempo desde un

relaciona directamente con el hecho de

punto de vista subjetivo, basándose en

que algunos países se hayan movido

las

desde la ‘pobreza’ a la ‘riqueza’, pero no

sentimientos asociados al tiempo por

ayuda a que las sociedades que ya están

parte de los individuos.

éxito/fracaso

de

los

países

concreta

o

percepciones,

a

cuál

es

cogniciones

la

y

desarrolladas alcancen todavía mayores niveles de ‘riqueza’ (Hofstede et al.,

La primera de estas dos categorías, es

2010). Entre los argumentos que pueden

decir, la que versa sobre los aspectos

esgrimirse para explicar el motivo por el

objetivos

que, bajo determinadas condiciones, una

profusamente estudiada dentro de la

sociedad con una elevada orientación a

sociología.

20

del Así,

tiempo, los

ha

sociólogos

sido han

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION puesto especial énfasis en analizar las

con mayor detalle el interés por el

diferencias en el uso del tiempo según

estudio

distintas variables sociodemográficas y,

subjetivos del tiempo según el área

más

temática,

concretamente,

en

función

del

de

aspectos

así

objetivos

como

la

y

evolución

género. De hecho, el uso del tiempo es

experimentada por la investigación de

una variable tremendamente útil para

estos tópicos entre 2008 y 2012.

comprender el papel asignado a mujeres y hombres en una sociedad. Una revisión

Se utilizó la herramienta en inglés para

exhaustiva

realizar

del

estado

actual

de

la

la

consulta,

se

consideraron

investigación sociológica sobre el uso del

exclusivamente

artículos

tiempo puede consultarse en el trabajo de

académicas

se

Durán y Rogero (2009). Por su parte, la

temporal a trabajos publicados entre

segunda

2008 y 2012. Es decir, las actas de

categoría,

que

incluye

los

y

revistas

el

período

limitó

aspectos subjetivos del tiempo, ha

congresos,

sido un tópico de investigación recurrente

trabajos fin de grado y fin de master, los

en el ámbito de la psicología. Dentro de

documentos de trabajo y los libros no

esta disciplina se ha generado una gran

fueron considerados debido a que, en

cantidad de investigación empírica al

muchos

abrigo de lo se ha denominado psicología

realizar

del

temática

tiempo

(Fraisse,

1963;

Grondin,

las

en

tesis

casos, una

doctorales,

resultaba

asignación

y,

en

su

área

calidad

académica

aspectos

subjetivos

cuestionable al carecer de revisión por

vinculados al tiempo no se circunscribe

pares. Por otra parte, la razón por la que

exclusivamente a estas dos disciplinas.

no se incluyeron en el análisis los artículos

Sin

relación

publicados en 2013 fue que cada vez es

exhaustiva, el tiempo ha sido objeto de

más habitual que las revistas académicas

estudio en otras disciplinas, tales como la

publiquen en su sitio web los avances

economía, la educación, la geografía o la

online

medicina. En el ámbito de las artes y las

aparecerán

humanidades, los filósofos, historiadores,

números (los denominados como articles

lingüistas,

in press). Sin embargo, esta práctica,

ánimo

incluso

de

y

exponer

antropólogos,

músicos

o

una

escritores,

artistas

e

plásticos,

pensada

de

cuanto

un

2008). Sin embargo, el estudio de los objetivos

era,

imposible

a

otros,

los

artículos incluidos

para

hacer

menos,

aceptados en

que

próximos

accesibles

los

también han convertido al tiempo en un

trabajos aceptados lo más rápido posible,

objeto continuado de su atención (Durán

podría sesgar el análisis presentado en

& Rogero, 2008).

esta tesis, puesto que Google Scholar indexa también los artículos en prensa,

Se

recurrió

a

Google

Scholar

asignando como fecha de publicación el

(http://scholar.google.com/) para ilustrar

momento de su aparición en el sitio web

21

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN hasta su inclusión en un volumen y

identificados

fueron

número definitivo de la revista. En este

revistas multidisciplinares (29.42%) o

sentido, es muy probable que en el año

de medicina (20.82%). Entre los temas

2014 todavía existan artículos en prensa

estudiados en relación con el uso del

aparecidos en 2013 y que éstos estén

tiempo dentro de la medicina es posible

pendientes de su inclusión en próximos

encontrar desde trabajos que utilizan la

números, lo que conduciría directamente

variable

a una sobrestimación del número de

propagación de enfermedades infecciosas

artículos publicados en 2013.

o la duración óptima de un determinado

tiempo

publicados

para

modelizar

en

la

tratamiento, hasta otros que analizan la En

la

Tabla

1.1

se

presentan

los

relación entre el

tiempo dedicado a

resultados relativos al interés por el

diferentes actividades (ejercicio físico,

estudio

del

ocio, vida sedentaria, etc.) y el riesgo de

tiempo según área temática entre 2008

sufrir ciertas enfermedades (ya sean de

y 2012. Los términos concretos utilizados

tipo cardiaco u obesidad, entre otras) o

para la búsqueda en el título del artículo

los patrones de uso del tiempo de sujetos

aparecen recogidos en la nota al pie de

con enfermedades o lesiones crónicas

esta misma tabla. Entre 2008 y 2012 es

concretas.

Dentro

posible

publicados

en

de

aspectos

identificar

un

objetivos

total

artículos que contienen

de

en su

826

de

los

artículos

revistas

de

ciencias

título

sociales, que suponen el 13.80% del

alguno de los términos de búsqueda

total, predominan estudios sobre las

considerados. Además, se observa que en

diferencias en el uso del tiempo según

estos cinco años se ha incrementado en

variables sociodemográficas, desde un

un 55.20% el número de estudios

enfoque sociológico, y otros en los se

publicados sobre aspectos objetivos del

analiza cómo el uso del tiempo influye

tiempo, pasando de 125 artículos en el

sobre el rendimiento académico, desde un

año 2008 a 194 en el 2012.

enfoque más próximo a la educación. En este último caso, hay que tener presente

En cuanto al área temática, ésta fue

que el tiempo es uno de los inputs más

medida a partir del área en el que la

relevantes del proceso educativo y, por

revista está indexada en SCImago Journal

esta razón, diversos estudios empíricos lo

Rank o Journal Citation Reports® o, en

han

caso de no aparecer en ninguno de estos

alcanzados por los estudiantes (Díaz,

dos

García, & Molina, 2014).

índices,

consultando

información

relacionado

con

los

resultados

sobre los objetivos y el alcance de cada revista en su propio sitio web. Los datos

A gran distancia, en cuarta y sexta

presentados en la Tabla 1.1 muestran que

posición, respectivamente, se encuentran

más

las áreas de economía, econometría y

22

del

50%

de

los

artículos

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION finanzas, con 73 artículos publicados, y

no mercado (realizada en el interior de los

empresas,

y

hogares) y el resto se dedica a otras

artículos

actividades, entre las que se incluyen la

publicados entre 2008 y 2012. En el

educación o la búsqueda de trabajo.

ámbito de la economía y la empresa, el

Resulta especialmente llamativo que esta

origen del interés por el estudio del

última actividad no llegue a absorber ni el

tiempo se puede situar en el trabajo de

6% del descenso de las horas de trabajo

Becker (1965). Siguiendo los postulados

remunerado.

administración

contabilidad,

con

36

de este autor, el tiempo se considera un recurso sujeto a restricciones (igual que

Ingeniería,

el dinero) que los individuos dedicarán a

ambientales completan la lista de las

la realización de distintas actividades con

áreas temáticas en las que más se han

el objetivo de maximizar su función de

estudiado

utilidad. Dentro de estas áreas, también

tiempo

existen estudios que abordan el tópico del

porcentajes que no superan el 4% en

tiempo

ninguno de los tres casos. Cabe destacar

para

relacionadas,

analizar por

cuestiones

aspectos

entre

2008

ciencias

objetivos

del

2012,

con

y

que la mayoría de los estudios publicados

productividad del trabajo, el proceso de

en revistas de ingeniería versan sobre la

asignación

distintas

modelización de los patrones de uso del

actividades en el interior de los hogares,

tiempo a la hora de viajar empleando

o la relación entre la situación de la

distintos medios de transporte.

economía

y

tiempo

el

Recientemente,

uso

a

con

los

y

la

de

ejemplo,

psicología

del

Hurst

y

Adicionalmente, la Tabla 1.1 también

usando

la

proporciona información, para cada área

American Time Use Survey entre 2003 y

temática o año, sobre la/s revista/s con

2010, analizan cómo, en un contexto de

más artículos publicados, así como las

recesión, el descenso en las horas de

citas promedio recibidas y el número de

trabajo remunerado se asigna a otras

citas

actividades

Destaca el hecho de que los artículos

Karabarbounis

Aguiar,

tiempo.

(2013),

como

pueden

ser

tareas

del

artículo

sobre

autores

ocio

publicados en las áreas de economía,

a

econometría y finanzas, y medicina

actividades como dormir o ver la TV que

(con un número de citas promedio de

suponen más de las dos terceras partes)

13.48 y 13.36, respectivamente) reciben

absorbe más del 50% del descenso de las

por término medio un mayor número de

horas de trabajo remunerado, algo menos

citas que el resto. En el otro extremo, los

del 30% de ese tiempo se sustituye por

artículos sobre el tópico del uso del

actividades vinculadas a la producción de

tiempo

(principalmente

que

tiempo

el

dedicado

en

objetivos

referenciado.

domésticas, ocio, educación, etc. Estos encuentran

aspectos

más

las

del

tiempo

publicaciones

de

23

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN ingeniería

y

ciencias

ambientales

tienen la media de citas más baja, con

3.45

y

3.17

citas

por

artículo,

respectivamente.

Tabla 1.1. Interés por el estudio de aspectos objetivos del tiempo según área temática entre 2008 y 2012: revistas académicas disponibles en Google Scholar.

Concepto

Número de artículos

Porcentaje

Revista con más artículos publicados (número)

Citas recibidas M (DT)

Por el artículo más citado

8.93 (24.14)

460

7.46 (10.97)

81

13.36 (46.35)

460

Social Indicators Research (16)

8.15 (12.36)

77

8.84%

Review of Economics of the Household (8)

13.48 (20.79)

99

51

6.17%

Animal Behaviour (3)

6.47 (14.53)

95

36

4.36%

Monthly Labor Review (7)

5.11 (5.86)

19

Ingeniería

33

4.00%

Transportation Research Record (10)

3.45 (6.15)

32

Psicología

27

3.27%

Journal of Research on Adolescence (2)

9.37 (13.64)

53

Ciencias ambientales

12

1.45%

Science of the Total Environment (3)

3.17 (2.73)

7

Otras áreas temáticas

65

7.87%

6.63 (12.48)

75

826

100.00%

8.93 (24.14)

460

16.21 (43.62)

460

12.83 (29.68)

361

9.42 (17.33)

151

ÁREA TEMÁTICA

826

100.00%

Multidisciplinares

243

29.42%

Medicina

172

20.82%

Ciencias sociales

114

13.80%

73

Economía, econometría y finanzas Agricultura y ciencias biológicas Empresas, administración y contabilidad

AÑO DE PUBLICACIÓN

Electronic International Journal of Time Use Research (16) Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine (6)

Animal Behaviour, Feminist Economics, Transportation Research Record (3) Social Indicators Research (10) British Journal of Learning Disabilities, Review of Economics of the Household (4)

2008

125

15.13%

2009

172

20.82%

2010

153

18.52%

2011

182

22.03%

Feminist Economics (8)

5.36 (8.92)

96

23.49%

American Economic Review, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, PLoS One (3)

3.73 (9.48)

89

2012

194

Notas: M: media; DT: desviación típica. Términos de búsqueda en el título del artículo: ‘time use’, ‘use of time’, ‘time spent’, ‘spending time’, ‘time allocation’, ‘allocation of time’, ‘time budget’. Fecha de consulta en http://scholar.google.com/: 2 de junio de 2014.

24

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION En cuanto a los aspectos subjetivos del

enfermedad de Parkinson, esquizofrenia,

tiempo, el interés por su estudio según el

etc.) afectan a la percepción subjetiva del

área temática entre 2008 y 2012 aparece

tiempo. El resto de áreas temáticas

en la Tabla 1.2. En este caso, el número

registran porcentajes comprendidos entre

total de artículos identificados en el

el

periodo considerado se sitúa en 573,

sociales, y el 2.27%, en el de artes y

registrándose

humanidades. Llama la atención que, en

un

incremento

del

61.96% entre 2008 y 2012.

el

6.28%,

en

el

caso

de

ciencias

periodo analizado, sólo se hayan

identificado

19

artículos

Las revistas multidisciplinares y de

publicaciones

psicología se sitúan, con diferencia,

administración y contabilidad en cuyo

como

título

las

más

interesadas

en

la

de

en

aparezcan

empresas,

los

términos

de

publicación de trabajos vinculados con los

búsqueda introducidos relativos a los

aspectos subjetivos del tiempo, tales

aspectos subjetivos del tiempo.

como percepción del tiempo o TP, ya que, de

forma

conjunta,

un

Por último, señalar que, como se observa

porcentaje del 58.64%. En el caso de la

en la Tabla 1.2, los artículos publicados

psicología, la TP ha sido ampliamente

en

relacionada

y

aspectos subjetivos del tiempo tienen

comportamientos de todo tipo, entre los

más probabilidad de ser citados (en

que se pueden citar, por poner algunos

promedio tienen casi 20 citas por artículo)

ejemplos, la preocupación ambiental y la

que

realización de conductas orientadas a la

cualquier otra área temática, mientras

conservación

que los artículos de las revistas de

con

registran

actitudes

del

medio

ambiente

revistas

los

de

neurociencia

publicados

en

revistas

bioquímica,

Verdugo, Fraijo-Sing, & Pinheiro, 2006),

molecular no llegan, en promedio, a

el ejercicio y la comida sana (Joireman,

dos citas por trabajo. La mayoría de los

Shaffer, Balliet, & Strathman, 2012) o el

artículos publicados en las revistas de

bienestar

Duncan,

esta última área guardan relación con el

Sutherland, Abernethy, & Henry, 2008),

estudio de la orientación temporal o TP

entre otros muchos. En tercer lugar se

entre personas de edad avanzada.

(Drake,

y

de

(Arnocky, Milfont, & Nicol, 2014; Corral-

subjetivo

genética

sobre

biología

sitúan las revistas de medicina, en las que se han publicado el 13.09% de los

A partir del análisis presentado en las

artículos

Tablas 1.1 y 1.2 es posible señalar que la

publicados

identificados. en

principalmente,

este

Los caso

cómo

trabajos abordan,

atención

prestada

distintas

empresas, administración y contabilidad a aspectos

en

objetivos

el y

área

de

enfermedades (Trastorno por Déficit de

los

subjetivos

Atención con Hiperactividad – TDAH,

relacionados con el uso del tiempo es

25

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN bastante escasa, en comparación con

los

otras áreas. Descendiendo al ámbito del

objetivos como subjetivos, a la hora de

marketing

comportamiento del

explicar las decisiones y comportamientos

consumidor, esta circunstancia resulta

de los consumidores (Bergadaà, 1990;

aún más paradójica, sobre todo si se tiene

Davies & Omer, 1996; Feldman & Hornik,

en cuenta que numerosos modelos de

1981; Hauser, Urban, & Weinberg, 1993;

comportamiento

Hornik, 1984; Hornik & Zakay, 1996;

y del

del

consumidor

aspectos

Lane,

temporales,

propuestos en la década de los 80 y 90

Kaufman,

&

han incidido en la importancia de incluir

Robinson & Nicosia, 1991).

tanto

Lindquist,

1991;

Tabla 1.2. Interés por el estudio de aspectos subjetivos del tiempo según área temática entre 2008 y 2012: revistas académicas disponibles en Google Scholar.

Concepto

ÁREA TEMÁTICA Multidisciplinares

Número de artículos

Porcentaje

Revista con más artículos publicados (número)

573

100.00%

170

29.67%

PLoS One (9)

Psicología

166

28.97%

International Journal of Psychology (37)

Medicina

75

13.09%

Journal of Vision (8)

Ciencias sociales

36

6.28%

Time & Society (5)

Neurociencia

26

4.54%

Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience (7)

25

4.36%

Gerontologist (15)

19

3.32%

Un artículo por revista

Ingeniería

16

2.79%

Un artículo por revista

Artes y humanidades

13

2.27%

Un artículo por revista

Otras áreas temáticas

27

4.71%

573

100.00%

Bioquímica, genética y biología molecular Empresas, administración y contabilidad

AÑO DE PUBLICACIÓN 2008

92

16.06%

2009

101

17.63%

2010

94

16.40%

2011

137

23.91%

2012

149

26.00%

International Journal of Psychology (26) Psychological Science (4) Psychology & Health (6) Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience (5) International Journal of Psychology (11)

Citas recibidas M (DT) 10.54 (22.86) 10.97 (19.79) 11.87 (29.44) 6.16 (8.76) 11.14 (16.70) 19.31 (34.36) 1.84 (8.79) 6.26 (10.62) 17.94 (36.43) 5.00 (8.75) 12.74 (23.52) 10.54 (22.86) 17.04 (38.00) 15.36 (23.35) 12.99 (26.89) 8.19 (12.92) 3.88 (7.76)

Por el artículo más citado 229 159 229 41 81 140 44 37 134 30 105 229 229 159 184 77 77

Notas: M: media; DT: desviación típica. Términos de búsqueda en el título del artículo: ‘time perception’, ‘time perceptions’, ‘time perspective’, ‘time perspectives’, ‘time orientation’, ‘time orientations’, ‘time attitude’, y ‘time attitudes’. Fecha de consulta en http://scholar.google.com/: 11 de junio de 2014.

26

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Lo descrito en el párrafo anterior no

LaMondia, 2010; Shores & Scott, 2007).

quiere decir, en ningún caso, que los

Realizando

aspectos temporales hayan sido obviados

principales líneas de investigación

sistemáticamente dentro de los estudios

que dentro del comportamiento del

de

consumidor

marketing

consumidor,

y

comportamiento

simplemente

sugiere

del la

abordar

el

una

se

síntesis

han

análisis

de

de

encargado los

las

de

aspectos

existencia de huecos de investigación

objetivos y subjetivos del tiempo, es

que

cubrir

posible encontrar cuatro grandes grupos

2000;

(Figura 1.1).

es

necesario

(Chetthamrongchai

&

Davies,

Figura 1.1. Principales líneas de investigación en comportamiento del consumidor sobre los aspectos objetivos y subjetivos del tiempo.

Modelos generales de comportamiento del consumidor

Influencia de la perspectiva temporal sobre las actitudes y comportamientos de los consumidores

Principales líneas de investigación

Psicología de las esperas

Diferencias en la valoración del tiempo y el dinero por parte de los consumidores

27

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Dentro de la primera línea se pueden

estrategia de marketing se debe poner en

incluir

ofrecer

los

modelos

comportamiento

generales

el

producto

o

servicio

más

consumidor.

económico o la mejor relación calidad-

Éstos han estudiado el tiempo y el dinero

precio; mientras que para el de ‘pobres’

como dos de los recursos disponibles por

en términos de tiempo pero ‘ricos’ en

el individuo y, por tanto, como factores

términos de dinero, la clave está en hacer

que influyen dentro del proceso de

que el producto sea fácilmente accesible,

decisión

&

siendo necesario centrarse, por tanto, en

en

el diseño de un adecuado sistema de

de

del

de

compra

(Hawkins

Mothersbaugh,

2010).

cuenta

recursos

ambos

Teniendo de

manera

distribución.

conjunta es posible identificar, al menos, cuatro

segmentos.

Dos

ellos,

También dentro de esta misma línea se

totalmente opuestos entre sí y que están

pueden incluir los trabajos que se centran

alcanzando cada vez más peso en las

en analizar los resultados posteriores a

sociedades modernas, a pesar de que

la compra, por ejemplo, en términos de

siguen

intenciones o comportamientos de lealtad

representando

porcentaje

población,

menor

hacia el producto, marca o empresa. En

denominados como ‘ricos’ en términos de

este sentido, existe abundante literatura

tiempo y dinero (por ejemplo, un rico

que considera el tiempo como un coste

heredero)

dos

de cambio (Burnham, Frels, & Mahajan,

recursos (por ejemplo, una mujer cabeza

2003). De tal forma que los consumidores

de

pueden decidir seguir siendo fieles a un

y

la

un

los

familia

de

de

‘pobres’

en

monoparental)

son

estos (Jäckel

&

Wollscheid, 2007). En los otros dos casos

producto,

(es decir, ‘ricos’ en términos de tiempo

esfuerzo en términos de tiempo que

pero ‘pobres’ en términos de dinero y

supone buscar y analizar información

‘pobres’ en términos de tiempo pero

sobre otras alternativas disponibles y

‘ricos’

adaptarse a las mismas.

en

términos

comportamiento

de

de

dinero),

compra

el

marca

o

empresa

por

el

estará

condicionado por el recurso que sea más

Dentro de una segunda línea, que podría

escaso. De esta forma, por ejemplo, un

vincularse con la psicología de las

desempleado estará más predispuesto a

esperas,

malgastar su tiempo que su dinero a la

literatura

hora de buscar información, evaluar las

diversas como pueden ser, por citar

alternativas de compra disponibles y

algunos ejemplos, la influencia de la

adquirir/contratar un producto/servicio.

música (McDonnell, 2007; Oakes, 2003)

Así, para el segmento de ‘ricos’ en

o los aromas (McDonnell, 2007) en el

términos de tiempo pero ‘pobres’ en

tiempo

términos de dinero, el énfasis de la

predisposición a esperar, o el estudio

28

también que

existe

aborda

percibido

de

abundante

cuestiones

espera

y

tan

la

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION de las esperas en el caso del comercio

realizan una valoración diferente del

electrónico (Ryan & Valverde, 2003). A

coste de oportunidad asociado a su

pesar de que las investigaciones en este

tiempo o dinero (Okada & Hoch, 2004).

ámbito

los

En concreto, parece que los consumidores

sus

están más predispuestos a malgastar

esfuerzos en eliminar las esperas por su

su tiempo que su dinero. Es lo que

influencia negativa sobre la satisfacción

algunos

del

estudios

justificación elástica (Hsee, 1995). En

recientes como el de Gavilán y García de

otras palabras, a la hora de tomar

Madariaga (2009) concluyen que, en

decisiones sobre el uso del tiempo, la

contra de lo que cabría esperar a priori, la

gente

espera

efectos

constantemente su tiempo como se ven

negativos. Así, en el caso de los servicios

obligados a hacer los personajes que

que cumplen cuatro premisas básicas

viven en los barrios humildes de la

(existencia de otras alternativas factibles,

película In time (Abraham, Newman,

atribución de la espera a causas externas

Niccol, & Niccol, 2011).

suelen

empresarios

cliente

no

recomendar

que

con

a

concentren

el

servicio,

siempre

tiene

autores

no

han

trata

de

denominado

optimizar

al propio cliente o proveedor del servicio, concurrencia de ciertos riesgos asociados

En esta película de ciencia ficción, las

a la elección y posibilidad de que tengan

personas dejan de envejecer al cumplir

lugar limitaciones en la capacidad de

los veinticinco años, ya que el gen

suministro), la espera actúa como indicio

responsable del envejecimiento humano

del

y

ha sido desactivado, pero a partir de ese

predispone al sujeto a esperar de una

momento sólo tienen un año más de vida.

forma más satisfactoria. Estos autores

Transcurrido ese año, mueren a menos

argumentan que el funcionamiento de la

que ‘ganen’ más tiempo y rellenen con él

espera

regla

sus ‘relojes vitales’, que portan en sus

heurística de decisión (las personas se

antebrazos izquierdos. En esta sociedad

basan

de

futurista, el tiempo se ha convertido en

principios para reducir la compleja tarea

‘dinero’ y es la forma de pagar cualquier

de evaluar y decidir) y, por esa razón,

necesidad o lujo. Las personas viven en

nuestro

como

‘zonas horarias’ distintas, en función de

consumidores ante las esperas suele ser:

su estatus social. Así, mientras que los

‘si esperamos es mejor y si es mejor,

pobres viven en barrios humiles (para

estamos dispuestos a esperar’ (Gavilán &

ellos, el trabajo diario es imprescindible

García de Madariaga, 2009, p. 72).

para ganar unas cuantas horas más de

valor,

es en

estimula

la

asimilable un

número

elección

a

una

limitado

razonamiento

vida, y pagar los bienes y servicios que En tercer lugar, otros estudios se centran

les

en

diarias), los ricos residen en la zona más

evaluar

cómo

los

consumidores

permiten

cubrir

sus

necesidades

29

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN lujosa y pueden vivir durante siglos. En la

Méndez

película, cada ‘zona horaria’ está cercada

impulsividad,

y, continuando con el símil del dinero, se

diferentes comportamientos durante la

cobran costosos peajes en tiempo para

actividad de estar de compras (Karande &

evitar

Merchant,

que

la

gente

‘pobre’

pueda

&

Davies, la

2005);

prudencia

2012),

la

la

y

tendencia

los

a

la

progresar y acceder a niveles sociales

compra por impulso (Lee & Song, 2011) y

más altos.

distintos patrones de compra (SarabiaSanchez,

2005);

la

compra

de

A partir del argumento de la película In

alimentos (Chetthamrongchai & Davies,

time, se puede entender la razón por la

2000; Dobson & Ness, 2009); y los

que los consumidores no se comportan en

beneficios buscados con el consumo de

la vida real de la misma forma al tomar

alimentos

decisiones relacionadas con el tiempo y

Dacko, 2013).

ecológicos

(Mohsen

&

con el dinero: simplemente, no son conscientes de la enorme restricción

A pesar de la importancia del tiempo para

temporal

comprender

existente

en

sus

vidas.

el

comportamiento

del

Estudios como el de Okada y Hoch (2004)

consumidor, no cabe duda de que este

desmontan la validez de otros intentos

recurso

previos,

la

mucho menos estudiado que el dinero

por

(Chetthamrongchai & Davies, 2000). En

como

propuesta

de

los

basados

Becker

en

(1965),

ha

sido,

sentido,

comparativamente,

modelizar el uso tiempo como si siguiera

este

los

tres

estudios

el mismo patrón que el uso del dinero.

empíricos incluidos en esta tesis doctoral pretenden cubrir algunos de los huecos de

Una

cuarta

línea

de

investigación

investigación

existentes

dentro

del

destacada dentro de los estudios de

marketing con aportaciones procedentes

marketing

del

de distintas disciplinas como pueden ser

consumidor es la que vincula la TP (que

la psicología o la sociología. En concreto,

puede ser definida como la importancia

las tres investigaciones tienen en común

relativa

al

que se centran en analizar el papel de los

pasado, presente y futuro) con distintos

aspectos temporales (ya sea el uso del

tipos de actitudes y comportamientos

tiempo

de los consumidores. Aunque Usunier y

comportamiento del consumidor y,

Valette-Florence

una

por tanto, como criterios/bases válidas

extensa revisión en este sentido, la TP ha

para segmentar el mercado (es decir,

sido relaciona principalmente con: las

como

actitudes y los comportamiento hacia la

utilizadas

publicidad (Kaynak, Kara, & Apil, 2011;

sujetos

Martin, Gnoth, & Strong, 2009; Rojas-

heterogéneos entre sí).

30

que

y

comportamiento

los

sujetos

(2007)

asignan

ofrecen

o

la

TP)

variables para

para

entender

susceptibles encontrar

homogéneos

de

grupos

internamente

el

ser de y

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION El primer estudio (Capítulo 2) propone

españoles usan el tiempo es objeto de

utilizar la Encuesta de Empleo del Tiempo

continuo

realizada por el Instituto Nacional de

Hamermesh, 2014) y, probablemente,

Estadística entre el 1 de octubre de 2009

constituye

y el 30 de septiembre de 2010 como

característicos y diferenciadores de esta

aproximación al análisis de los estilos de

sociedad, sirva como ejemplo el título de

vida.

la

un artículo reciente de The New York

conceptualización de Anderson y Golden

Times: ‘Spain, Land of 10 P.M. Dinners’

(1984), quienes sugieren que existe una

(Yardley, 2014).

Esta

propuesta

sigue

debate uno

(González

de

los

&

rasgos

más

imprecisión conceptual y operativa en la forma en que el constructo estilos de vida

El segundo estudio (Capítulo 3) evalúa

ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado en la

la eficacia del uso del tiempo en un

literatura

destino

de

comportamiento

del

turístico

como

segmentación.

(1984) proponen limitar la definición de

realizado se desarrolla en la ciudad de

estilos de vida a patrones de conducta

Toledo

manifiesta, sin incluir otros aspectos

información

como intereses u opiniones que formarían

excursionistas y turistas. A partir de una

parte de la

estilo

exhaustiva revisión de la literatura en la

cognitivo de los individuos, pero no de los

que se analizan cuáles son las principales

estilos de vida propiamente dichos.

variables de segmentación en el ámbito

o del

(España),

análisis

de

consumidor. Por ello, Anderson y Golden

psicografía

El

criterio

y

se

empírico

basa

obtenida

en

de

la

799

del marketing turístico, se concluye que En concreto, el propósito de esta primera

las

investigación es identificar y describir

motivaciones

distintos patrones de uso del tiempo de

utilizadas como bases de segmentación

los consumidores españoles durante los

en este ámbito concreto. Sin embargo, la

fines

una

efectividad de estos dos criterios de

contribución relevante, sobre todo si se

segmentación puede ser reducida en el

tiene en cuenta que las dimensiones

caso específico de un destino cultural

temporales rara vez se han utilizado como

donde,

criterios/bases

visitantes pasean por el casco antiguo de

de

semana.

de

Ésta

segmentación

estudios

empíricos

previos.

parte,

no

han

investigaciones

se

es

anteriores

Por

en otra

encontrado que

hayan

la

actividades

por

ciudad

realizadas

han

sido

ejemplo, o

las

ampliamente

casi

visitan

o

todos museos

los y

monumentos. La segunda investigación empírica de esta tesis da un paso más en

abordado esta cuestión en el contexto

este

sentido,

al

proponer

una

socio-cultural español, lo que constituye

segmentación basada en la medición del

otra justificación adicional del interés del

tiempo dedicado a cada actividad y

estudio. Además, la forma en que los

evaluar las diferencias existentes entre

31

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN los

distintos

relación como

grupos

con

identificados

variables

en

relación con la falta de tiempo y la

fundamentales

insatisfacción con el disfrute del ocio no

son

el

gasto

efectuado,

intenciones

de

comportamiento

y

las

se encuentra en la cantidad de tiempo

la

disponible, sino en la incapacidad para

imagen después de visitar la ciudad.

manejar este recurso con éxito a hora extraer el máximo provecho de cada hora

Por último, el tercer estudio (Capítulo 4)

del día. Además, añade que la falta de

explora cómo cada una de las cinco TP

efectividad

(pasado-negativo,

pasado-positivo,

entrenamiento a la hora mejorar la forma

presente-fatalista, presente-hedonista y

en que se usa el tiempo y conseguir los

futuro), propuestas por Zimbardo y Boyd

resultados esperados se debe a que el

(1999),

énfasis se ha puesto, tradicionalmente,

y

el

perspectiva

hecho

de

temporal

tener

una

equilibrada

en

de

modificar

los

programas

directamente

de

los

(entendida como una perspectiva flexible

comportamientos, sin entender que la

o adaptable a cada situación, sin sesgo

clave se encuentra en la psicología del

hacia

concreta)

tiempo (Boniwell, 2012). En este sentido,

influyen sobre la cantidad de tiempo

este último estudio pretende ser valioso a

libre

beneficios

la hora de aportar nuevas evidencias

buscados con el ocio y las actividades

sobre si determinadas TPs o, tal vez, el

de

resultados

hecho de tener una perspectiva temporal

obtenidos proceden de una muestra de

equilibrada se pueden llegar a considerar

320 estudiantes de Grado y Máster de la

como orientaciones sanas para disfrutar

Universidad

del tiempo libre.

una

zona

temporal

disponible, ocio

los

realizadas.

de

Los

Castilla-La

Mancha

(UCLM). A pesar de que, como se comentó anteriormente,

las

TPs

han

sido

ampliamente relacionadas con diferentes actitudes y comportamientos (hacia la publicidad, las compras, el consumo de productos ecológicos, etc.), existen pocos estudios empíricos que investiguen el papel que la orientación temporal tiene en las

elecciones

consumidores 2005;

de

ocio

(Philipp, 1992;

Shores

&

Scott,

de

los

Shores, 2007).

Recientemente, Boniwell (2012) señala que, en la sociedad actual, el problema en

32

CHAPTER 2.

TIME USE PATTERNS OF SPANISH

CONSUMERS

AT

WEEKENDS: IN SEARCH OF WHAT, WHO AND WHEN

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION CHAPTER 2. TIME USE PATTERNS OF

time, money, and space (Feldman &

SPANISH

Hornik,

CONSUMERS

AT

1981).

Of

course,

activities

WEEKENDS: IN SEARCH OF WHAT,

related to consumption are no exception

WHO AND WHEN

to

this

statement.

Time

use

should

therefore be a topic of interest for marketing

and

consumer

researchers, 2.1.

Introduction

behaviour

particularly

when

considering that the time spent on each activity can be viewed as an indicator of

Time

use

studies

detailed

lifestyles

information on the roles of personal care

enormous

(Basner et al., 2007), study (Dolton,

Ratchford, & Yang, 2013). However, as

Marcenaro,

Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000, p.

&

provide

Navarro,

2003),

and

point

that

it

economic

out,

also

has

impact

(Luo,

employment and family care (Freeman &

82)

Schettkat, 2005), volunteer work (Hook,

expenditures

2004), social life and entertainment,

extensively, the issue of time allocation

sports and outdoor activities, hobbies and

has received relatively little attention’.

have

‘while

an

been

monetary studied

games, the mass media (Frey & Benesch, 2008; Harvey, 1990; Nimrod, 2007), and

More specifically, we focus our attention

travel

in

on literature on market segmentation

people’s lives. Time use additionally

(grouping consumers into clusters or

offers a valuable framework with which to

segments,

discover

by

homogeneous and heterogeneous with

quantifying and comparing activity levels

regard to other segments). Although

(Farber,

&

some studies which carry out consumer

Morency, 2011). From a social policy

segmentation on the basis of different

perspective, time poverty (not having

time

enough time to do the things one needs

perspectives do exist (Avello, Gavilán,

to do) may be more important than

Blasco, & Abril, 2010; Chetthamrongchai

income poverty, and generates social

& Davies, 2000; Dobson & Ness, 2009;

costs (less time to volunteer, to socialise

McDonald, 1994), very few propose a

with family and friends, or to relax), which

market segmentation based on time use

are important determinants of life quality

(Jäckel & Wollscheid, 2007; Kamakura,

and emotional well-being (Spinney &

2009). This circumstance is particularly

Millward, 2010).

striking if we bear in mind that consumers

(Srinivasan

barriers Paéz,

&

to

Bhat, 2008)

inclusion

Mercado,

Roorda,

have

which

attitudes,

commonly

are

internally

perceptions

been

or

segmented

All human actions involve the allocations

according to the products and services

of three resources to varying degrees:

that they purchase and consume, when

35

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN these behaviours are really related to the

Firstly, the study of time use patterns at

allocation of time to various activities

weekends is a key aspect since these

(Kamakura, 2010).

patterns have an effect on well-being that

is

highly

relative

other

The purpose of this study is therefore to

determinants

identify

time use

weekends are more valuable not because

patterns of Spanish consumers at

they are a rest period from work but

weekends.

relevant

rather because they allow us to share

contribution if we bear in mind that

social time with others (Young & Lim,

temporal dimensions (i.e. both subjective

2014).

and

describe This

the

is

a

of

to

well-being,

and

measures related to time attitudes and objective measures of time use) have

Secondly,

rarely

consumers

been

criteria/bases

used in

as

segmentation

previous

the

time

can

budget

freely

that

allocate

is

empirical

highest on a weekend day because

studies. Moreover, no previous research

contracted time (amount of time spent on

has investigated this issue in the Spanish

paid work or study, including associated

socio-cultural context. The three main

travel) is quite low for a large part of the

research questions, which are closely

Spanish population.

linked to the search for what, who, and when, are as follows:

Thirdly, the available data are crosssectional (interactions of an individual

(1)

Are there different clusters of

and a specific day), signifying that if we

Spanish consumers based on the

had considered all the days of the week it

time spent on each activity at

would

weekends? (What)

distinguish which time use patterns are

have

been

impossible

to

explained by differences in personal (2)

Do

socio-demographic

variables

affect

cluster

preferences and which are caused by the day of the week.

membership? (Who) The remainder of this chapter is divided (3)

Do clusters differ as regards their

into four sections, the first of which

timing

shows a literature review. The second

or

activity

rhythms?

(When)

provides a description of the method used, while our results are reported in the

As a starting point, it is important to

third section. Conclusions, implications,

clarify

limitations,

why

we

have

analysis to weekends.

36

limited

our

and

future

research

discussed in the last section.

are

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION 2.2.

Literature review

factors, such as awe, expand people’s perceptions

2.2.1.

of

time,

and

make

alter life

decision

The role of time in consumer

making,

feel

more

behaviour: a brief review

satisfying (Rudd, Vohs, & Aaker, 2012). Advances in objective time measures

Schary (1971, p. 51) pointed out that

have, on the other hand, shown for

‘time

example

that

consumer

marketing because it has not been part of

(acquired

over

time

the accepted framework of consumer

consumption) has both a direct and an

behaviour’. Since then various studies

indirect impact (via its influences on

carried out in the 1980s and ‘90s have

consumption

concentrated on partially remedying this

patterns and preferences towards an

situation by emphasising the importance

activity (Luo et al., 2013).

has

been

largely

ignored

in

motives)

expertise

through

on

past

time

use

of including the time approach as regards both

subjective

and

objective

time

With

regard

to

the

theoretical

and

measures in consumer behaviour models

empirical developments described above,

(Bergadaà, 1990; Davies & Omer, 1996;

the scant amount of attention that has

Feldman & Hornik, 1981; Hauser et al.,

been paid to temporal dimensions

1993; Hornik, 1984; Hornik & Zakay,

(time

1996; Kaufman et al., 1991; Robinson &

perspectives,

Nicosia, 1991).

segmentation criteria is paradoxical.

More recently, on the one hand, research

Table 2.1 provides a summary of the

focused on subjective time measures

empirical studies reviewed that have

has shown, among other things that

proposed consumer segmentation based

people are more willing to waste their

on time. Upon studying this table, various

time than their money (Okada & Hoch,

aspects stand out. First, there is a

2004); time orientation is an essential

predominance of research that uses a

starting point for understanding some

subjective

purchase patterns (e.g. impulsiveness or

segmentation base in comparison to that

means of payment) (Sarabia-Sanchez,

which uses an objective measure (five

2005); compared to wasting time, gaining

studies as opposed to two). Second,

a windfall of ‘free’ time, or spending time

almost all the studies reviewed focus on

on oneself, spending time with others

very specific subjects (e.g. shopping,

relaxes

constraints,

food shopping, or leisure), with the

increases feelings of time affluence, and

exception of that of Kamakura (2009).

can

Third, some researchers have used small

perceived

lessen

time

time pressure

(Mogilner,

Chance, & Norton, 2012); and emotional

attitudes, and

time

sample sizes

perceptions

or

time

as

use)

measure

(Avello

et

al.,

as

a

2010;

37

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Chetthamrongchai & Davies, 2000). All of

carry out new empirical research based

the above therefore justify the need to

on time use as segmentation criterion.

Table 2.1. Main studies concerning consumer segmentation on the basis of temporal dimensions.

Authors (year)

McDonald (1994)

Specific subject

Shopping

Segmentation criteria/bases Time perceptions (sense of purpose, structured routine, effective organisation, lack of present orientation, and persistence)

Sample size

Clusters (Percentage)

Country

448 individuals aged 45 or over

1. Routine managers (51%) 2. Aimless wanderers (37%) 3. Purposeful organisers (12%)

United States of America

Food shopping

Time attitudes (past, present and future orientations, time pressure, and succession) and shopping attitudes

210 respondents

Leisure

Temporal orientations or TPs (pastnegative, pastpositive, presentfatalistic, presenthedonistic, and future)

Study 1 (S1): 148 undergraduate students Study 2 (S2): 437 respondents aged 18 or over

Leisure

Leisure budgets, time use (five activities), temporal distribution, and perceptions of leisure time

3776 working day diaries

Dobson and Ness (2009)

Food shopping

Time attitudes (pressure, succession-planner, present-traditional, past-secure, future, past-tradition, and present-planner) and shopping attitudes

744 undergraduate students

Kamakura (2009)

Timestyles

Time use (18 activities)

12,687 individuals/ diaries

Shopping

Time perceptions (time pressure, temporal orientation, efficiency, planning, routine, and succession) and hedonic shopping motivations

257 women aged between 30 and 50 years old

Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000)

Shores (2005)

Jäckel and Wollscheid (2007)

Avello et al. (2010)

38

1. Convenience seekers (29%) 2. Time-pressured convenience seekers (28%) 3. Apathetic but regular (23%) 4. Hedonists (20%) 1. Present-hedonistic (S1: 20%, S2: 7%) 2. Future (S1: 20%, S2: 27%) 3. Present-fatalistic (S1: 20%, S2: 6%) 4. Past-positive (S1: 18%, S2: 43%) 5. Past-negative (S1: 11%, S2: 9%) 6. Undifferentiated (S1: 11%, S2: 8%) 1. Cluster with a medium leisure time (50%) 2. Time-poor cluster (33%) 3. Time-rich cluster (17%) 1. Methodical, valueseeking, apathetic, time-pressured traditional females (36%) 2. Hedonistic, succession-planning past-secure females (33%) 3. Futuristic, spontaneous male convenience seekers (31%) A-B. Timestyles on a working day (34%) C. Timestyle of students (5%) D-F. Timestyles of homemakers (35%) G-K. Timestyles focused on personal care and free time (26%)

1. Efficient/recreational (29%) 2. Erratic (34%) 3. Pragmatic (37%)

England

United States of America

Germany

England

United States of America

Spain

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION 2.2.2.

From lifestyle segmentation

the basis of four dimensions: values, life

to

visions,

market

segmentation

based on time use

aesthetic

styles,

and

media

preferences.

From a theoretical perspective, the need

However, none of the proposals described

to segment the market on the basis of

in the previous paragraph are consistent

time use refers to the concept of lifestyles

with

as a means of discovering the activities

Golden (1984), who conclude that there

carried out by consumers in their daily

is

lives. The concept of lifestyle has been

imprecision as regards the lifestyle

addressed by various disciplines (e.g.

construct

sociology,

or

literature. These authors suggest a clear

environmental sciences) and related to

distinction between lifestyle (restricting

many different problems (Jensen, 2009).

the

This interdisciplinary interest

characteristic

psychology,

marketing,

signifies

a

the approach

of Anderson

conceptual in

and

operational

consumer

definition

of

and

behaviour

lifestyle

patterns

of

to overt

that in our literature review we have

behaviour) and psychographic variables

found almost as many definitions of

or cognitive style (characteristic patterns

lifestyle as there are disciplines in which

of thinking, feeling, and perceiving). In

this concept has been studied.

this respect, Jensen (2009, p. 225) defines lifestyle as ‘a pattern of repeated

In the areas of marketing and consumer

acts that are both dynamic and to some

behaviour, lifestyle segmentation has

degree hidden to the individual, and they

been

identify

involve the use of artefacts’. Thus, von

homogeneous groups of consumers and

Normann (2009) for example presents

to

strategies

the results from an empirical study of

(Cahill, 2006). Plummer (1974) points out

German children in which a segmentation

that lifestyle measures people’s activities

analysis was conducted based on their

in terms of: how they spend their time,

lifestyles measured with leisure time

their interests and opinions, and certain

activities selected. This research reveals

demographic

Lifestyles

four lifestyles: family-centred children,

have therefore been measured using

outdoor and sociable youth, multimedia

different

kids, and culture-oriented youth.

used

extensively

implement

to

marketing

characteristics.

versions

of

the

Activities,

Interests and Opinions (AIO) Scale (Wells & Tigert, 1971) in a number of

McDonald (1994, p. 360) suggests that

studies,

consumers ‘assign time to activities based

such

as

that

conducted

by

Kucukemiroglu (1999). Vyncke (2002)

on

opportunities

subsequently advised against the use of

associated with lifestyle characteristics,

the AIO Scale, and identified lifestyles on

which

is

consistent

and with

constraints the

social-

39

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN psychological perspective that time use

work, housework, and leisure. As (1978)

represents

denominates these four kinds of time as:

an

indicator

of

lifestyles’.

Various authors have followed this idea to

necessary

go a step further and indicate that time

health, and hygiene), contracted time

use methodologies can provide valuable

(amount of time spent on paid work or

empirical evidence about lifestyles (Luo

study,

et al., 2013), while other researchers

committed time (time budget dedicated

have performed segmentations based on

to unpaid work such as housework,

data concerning how people allocate their

childcare,

time

2007;

volunteer work and meetings, and travel

Kamakura, 2009). Jäckel and Wollscheid

related to these activities), and leisure

(2007) use the German Time Use Survey

time (remaining time, when the time for

data collected from 2001 to 2002 and find

necessary, contracted

three lifestyles (a group with medium

activities is removed). Some authors refer

leisure time, a time-poor cluster, and a

to the last dimension (leisure time) as

time-rich cluster) which differ in their

free time, which is a standard measure of

leisure budgets, activities (media, social

time poverty (Spinney & Millward, 2010).

activity, sports, hobbies and games, and

However, in practise, people may spend

relaxing), temporal distribution (morning,

more time than is strictly necessary on

afternoon, and evening), perceptions of

each of the three previous dimensions

leisure time (not enough, enough, or too

(i.e. they spend more time on personal

much

socio-

care than necessary, work longer, or

demographic profiles. Kamakura (2009)

spend more time on unpaid household)

proposes a time-allocation model and

(Goodin, Rice, Bittman, & Saunders,

applies it to data from the American Time

2005). According to these authors, this

Use Survey collected in 2006, identifying

leads to what they denominate as ‘time-

eleven timestyles that define the different

pressure

ways in which American people allocate

recommend that time poverty should be

their time to 18 daily activities (Table

measured

2.1).

‘discretionary time’ (time left to them

(Jäckel

leisure

&

Wollscheid,

time),

and

time

and

(eating,

associated

shopping

illusion’ using

and the

and

and

they

sleeping,

travel),

services,

committed

therefore

concept

of

after they do the minimum they need to 2.2.3.

Heterogeneity in time use and

do as regards personal care, paid work

its determinants

and unpaid household labour).

As Feldman and Hornik (1981) indicate,

In addition to having to choose between

the

the

spending time on one activity or another,

consumer’s allocation of the resources to

individuals may combine (both actively

four components of time: necessities,

and passively) two or more activities at

40

basic

choice

consists

of

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION the same time. In this respect, previous

these unobservable individual differences

research has confirmed the prevalence of

is likely to produce a biased assessment

multi-tasking,

of

multi-tasking

suggesting style

that

affects

the

life

priorities’.

Our

first

research

people’s

question (RQ1) was, therefore: Are there

understanding of time use and the time

different clusters of Spanish consumers

that they spend participating in different

based on the time spent on each activity

activities (Kenyon, 2008).

at

weekends?

aforementioned

Based

on

studies

2007;

the

(Jäckel

Kamakura,

&

This leads us to pose a relevant question:

Wollscheid,

2009;

What do various individuals’ differences

Yamamoto & Kitamura, 1999), we can

in time allocation depend on? According

draw a tentative conclusion as follows:

to Yamamoto and Kitamura (1999), these differences may be owing to observed

Proposition

and unobserved factors. On the one

clusters of Spanish consumers based on

hand, some differences in time use can be

the

accounted for by measures explanatory

weekends.

socio-demographic environmental

on

are

each

different

activity

at

or With regard to observed heterogeneity,

Godbey, 2000), which have been widely

Robinson and Godbey (2000) classify the

dealt with in previous empirical and

background factors that affect how people

theoretical studies, and which will be

spend

discussed later. On the other, some other

biological factors; role factors; status

differences cannot be accounted for by

factors;

observed

geographic factors; and temporal factors

explanatory are

called

(Robinson

spent

There

&

these

aspects

variables

time

1:

variables,

and

‘unobserved

their

time

locational,

into

five

groups:

ecological,

or

(Figure 2.1).

heterogeneity’ (Yamamoto & Kitamura, 1999).

The importance of all these factors has been widely analysed in literature, that

With regard to the latter (unobserved

which has been most frequently studied

factors), Feldman and Hornik (1981)

being gender. This is not only because

indicate that time dedicated to each

there are large gender differences as

activity will depend on its subjective

regards time use, but also because of its

meaning for the consumer. Kamakura

importance for social policies (Robinson &

(2009, p. 335), meanwhile, points out

Godbey, 2000; Shaw, 1991). Current

that there are many explanations why

studies from Spain thus report gender

‘one should expect individuals to differ in

differences in the allocation of leisure

the value they assign to the competing

time to sports and cultural activities

daily activities. Any analysis that ignores

(Muñiz, Rodríguez, & Suárez, 2014). With

41

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN regard to age, previous empirical studies

literature

have

same

leisure time in relation to income (Jäckel

conclusions: older people have more

& Wollscheid, 2007). These authors have

leisure time, but they tend to spend less

discovered differences in leisure time use

time with others than young people

as regards not only gender, age and

(coinciding

income,

consistently

with

reached

the

the

disengagement

on

but

inequalities

also

concerning

family

status,

employment,

and

theory). This may explain why older

education,

people have more freedom than younger

professional status. Kamakura (2009),

people to spend time alone or because

meanwhile, profiles the eleven time-

they have fewer people around (i.e.

styles

smaller, less diverse, and more family-

marital status, presence of children

centric networks than younger people)

younger than 12 at home, family income,

(Marcum, 2013). There is also extensive

occupation, and day of the week.

based

on

gender,

age,

race,

Figure 2.1. Basic background factors in the model underlying activity participation.

Role factors   

Work hours Marital status Number of children

Status factors

Biological factors   

  

Sex Age Nationality or race

Education level Income Occupation Activities/behaviour Ecological factors

  

Housing type Size of place or urban area Region

Temporal factors   

Day of the week Month or season Year

Source: adapted from Robinson and Godbey (2000, p. 17).

42

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION The second research question (RQ2)

their time at weekends will be associated

was:

with differences in timing or activity

Do

socio-demographic

variables

affect cluster membership? The research proposition

based

on

the

research

question above is: Proposition

2:

Clusters

rhythms.

of

Spanish

2.3.

Method

2.3.1.

Data and sample profile

consumers based on the time spent on each activity at weekends differ with

This research uses data from the Time

regard

status,

Use Survey (TUS) collected by the

occupation, education level, presence of

Spanish National Statistics Institute from

children younger than 10 at home, and

1 October 2009 to 30 September

family income.

2010, in order to obtain information

to

age,

sex,

marital

concerning all the weeks in the year. The In the present study, the variable ‘day of

TUS

the week’ is not particularly relevant,

strategy

since we have limited our analysis to

census sections (they were grouped into

weekends. However, in order to take a

strata within each Spanish region based

step further in the analysis of time use,

on the size of the municipality to which

we also wish to investigate the question

the section belongs) at first stage. The

of when each type of activity takes

second stage units were selected from

place.

and

lists of family dwellings in each of these

Wollscheid (2007) have found differences

sections. Only those people aged 10 or

in

time

over residing in private residences were

evening)

studied in the TUS. These people filled out

among the three lifestyles that they

an individual questionnaire and an activity

identified. More specifically, the cluster

diary on a pre-established day. More

containing medium leisure time and the

comprehensive details about the data

time-poor

collection process are available in the

In

the

(morning,

this

respect,

distribution

of

afternoon,

cluster

Jäckel leisure

and

spend

a

higher

applied with

percentage of their leisure time budget in

methodological

the morning in comparison with the time-

Spanish

rich cluster. The third research question

(2011).

a

two-stage

stratified

report

National

sampling

sampling

prepared

Statistics

of

by

Institute

(RQ3) was therefore: Do clusters differ as regards their timing or activity rhythms?

The public-use microdata files for the TUS

And our research proposition is:

include

information

individuals/diaries Proposition 3:

Market

about

(Spanish

19,295 National

segmentation

Statistics Institute, 2012), individuals’

based on how Spanish consumers spend

interactions and a specific day. The 7559

43

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN weekend

diaries

beforehand

in

were

selected

accordance

with

the

memory effect may have significantly affected the outcomes of this study (e.g.

objectives of the study. Of these, only

omission

2118 individuals completed their diary

imprecision in timing or activity rhythms,

throughout or at the end of the pre-

etc.). This was nevertheless a sufficiently

established

the

large sample size for statistical analysis.

diary

Furthermore, we compared the socio-

retrospectively (i.e. one or more days

demographic profile of the original (n =

after

for

7559) and filtered weekend (n = 2118)

equality of means were performed to

samples. No substantial deviations were

assess whether the effect of memory

observed, and only two specific deviations

caused a bias in the reported time. We

of above four percentage points (in

found significant differences (p < 0.05) in

absolute value) from the original weekend

the average time spent on 60% of the

sample were detected. These were in

activities considered. Our sample was

occupation (employee = 4.84%) and

therefore reduced to 2118 individuals/

educational level (primary education = -

diaries

5.36%) (Table 2.2).

remaining the

weekend 5441

filled

reported

owing

day,

while

out

day).

the

T-tests

to the fact

that

the

of

short-duration

activities,

Table 2.2. Socio-demographic profile: comparison between original and filtered weekend samples.

Variable AGE SEX

Male Female MARITAL STATUS Single Married/living as a couple Widowed Separated/divorced OCCUPATION Employee Unemployed Student Retired Homemaker Other occupation EDUCATION LEVEL Without any formal education Primary education Secondary education Post-secondary non-tertiary education Tertiary education CHILDREN YOUNGER THAN 10 AT HOME None At least one

Original weekend sample (n = 7559) 47.66

Filtered weekend sample (n = 2118) 44.58

Deviations from the original weekend sample -3.08

46.09% 53.91%

46.08% 53.92%

-0.01% 0.01%

28.06% 59.20% 8.04% 4.70%

30.26% 59.54% 6.14% 4.06%

2.20% 0.34% -1.90% -0.64%

43.23% 10.69% 10.60% 15.76% 12.44% 7.28%

48.07% 10.62% 13.41% 12.23% 10.95% 4.72%

4.84% -0.07% 2.81% -3.53% -1.49% -2.56%

3.97% 34.30% 34.41% 11.59% 15.73%

2.56% 28.94% 37.06% 11.99% 19.45%

-1.41% -5.36% 2.65% 0.40% 3.72%

77.58% 22.42%

74.69% 25.31%

-2.89% 2.89%

Notes: The filtered sample was composed of people who completed the diary throughout or at the end of the pre-established weekend day.

44

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION 2.3.2.

Instruments

profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers and their activity rhythms, we presented

The TUS consisted of four information

the

collection

classification

tools

(Spanish

National

aggregated of

data

based

four

kinds

on of

the time

Statistics Institute, 2011): a household

(necessary, contracted, committed, and

questionnaire;

leisure time) proposed by As (1978), and

an

individual

questionnaire; an activity diary; and a

also

used

weekly work schedule (which was not

(2010).

by

Spinney

and

Millward

used in this research). The individual and

household

questionnaires

2.3.3.

Data analysis

provided us with information about the socio-demographic profile of the sample

The research propositions were tested

(who).

by

applying

analysis

(LCCA).

Time use data were collected using a 24-

significant

hour

segmentation

diary

(divided

into

10-minute

latent

class The

cluster

LCCA

advantages

over

procedures

has other

(Oppewal,

intervals, from 6:00 am to 6:00 am of the

Paas, Crouch, & Huybers, 2010) and has

following day) in which each respondent

been used in other market segmentation

was

main/principal

studies based on time use (García, 2013;

activity (what) and secondary activity

Kamakura, 2009). The proposed model

performed simultaneously (multi-tasking

included a series of indicators (what:

style), in addition to whether she/he used

minutes spent by Spanish consumers on

a

28

asked

computer

performing

to

report:

or these

the

Internet

activities;

when

activities

at

weekends)

and,

in

timing

accordance with previous research, also

(when); location or means of transport

incorporated certain relevant covariates

(where); and social context (with whom).

(who:

The activity code system used in the TUS

occupation, education level, presence of

was an adaptation of the Activity Coding

children younger than 10 at home, and

List 2008 proposed by Eurostat (2009) for

family income) with which to predict

harmonised European time use surveys.

cluster

This is hierarchical, with a maximum of

parameters were estimated using Latent

three levels. For our analyses, the 33

Gold® 4.5, while additional univariate

second-level activities were aggregated

and

into 28 categories. In addition, in order

conducted using IBM® SPSS® Statistics

to facilitate the interpretation of the

19.0.

age,

sex,

marital

membership.

bivariate

The

analyses

status,

model

were

45

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN 2.4.

Results

better fit (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000). The results presented in Table 2.3 indicate

2.4.1.

Number of time-use patterns

that, according to the CAIC, there were

and

nine time use patterns for Spanish

usefulness

of

the

indicators and covariates

consumers at weekends.

The first step in the LCCA is the selection

After determining the number of clusters

of

(nine), we evaluated the usefulness of

the

appropriate

number

of

clusters/segments based on statistical

the

criteria, such

significant

as

consistent

Akaike

indicators

and

p-value

covariates.

(i.e.

p

<

A

0.05)

information criterion (CAIC) (Wedel &

associated with the robust Wald statistic

Kamakura, 2000). This signifies that the

means that the indicator discriminates

LCCA is highly appropriate for research in

between the clusters in a statistically

which the number of clusters is unknown

significant manner (Vermunt & Magidson,

a priori. The number of time use patterns

2005a). The robust Wald p-value was

were

10

used to assess the significance of the

incorporated

covariates in similar way. Tables 2.4 and

between one (sample homogeneity) and

2.5 show the estimated parameters for

10 clusters (sample heterogeneity with 10

the

patterns). Lower CAIC values indicate a

respectively.

determined

models,

each

of

by

considering

which

indicators

and

covariates,

Table 2.3. Statistics for the latent class cluster models of Spanish consumers.

Model

Log-likelihood (LL)

CAIC(LL)

Number of parameters

Classification errors

One cluster

-314,227.76

628,940.39

56

0.00

Two clusters

-276,991.89

555,126.67

132

0.00

Three clusters

-266,408.89

534,618.69

208

0.00

Four clusters

-256,359.20

515,177.33

284

0.00

Five clusters

-252,070.96

507,258.89

360

0.00

Six clusters

-245,875.62

495,526.22

436

0.00

Seven clusters

-242,449.94

489,332.89

512

0.01

Eight clusters

-241,620.23

488,331.50

588

0.01

Nine clusters*

-235,769.30

477,287.66

664

0.00

Ten clusters

-235,563.56

477,534.21

740

0.00

Notes: CAIC: consistent Akaike information criterion; *Best model according to CAIC.

46

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Firstly, 27 out of 28 indicators had a

consumers based

significance level associated with the

patterns at weekends (RQ1). With regard

robust Wald statistic that was lower than

to the indicator measuring the time spent

0.05, indicating that the time allocation in

on other personal care, its p-value

these activities allows the sample to be

(0.12) was greater than 0.05, suggesting

grouped into nine clusters (Table 2.4).

that the time spent on this activity was

There was, therefore, empirical support

not significantly different between

for

clusters.

the

segmentation

of

Spanish

on

their time use

Table 2.4. Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators.

Indicator

Cluster 1. People who pursue domestic activities

Cluster 2. Sleepyheads and couch potatoes

Cluster 3. Weekend workers

Cluster 4. Book and radio/music lovers during leisure time

Cluster 5. DIY handypeople

Sleeping

11.96

89.03

-39.27

-14.89

22.56

Eating and drinking

7.19

4.33

-8.49

1.19

17.96

Other personal care

0.90

-1.91

-4.56

4.94

0.15

Employment

-61.38

-61.38

241.72

-61.31

-61.38

Study Travel related to employment and study Household management

-26.40

12.75

-26.40

-26.40

10.18

-7.78

-7.78

19.08

-7.78

-7.78

2.22

-9.28

-9.28

-9.28

-9.28

Food management

39.28

-24.01

-16.47

14.20

-25.46

Household upkeep

19.22

-7.44

-11.12

9.87

-2.68

Making and care of textiles

16.31

-14.58

-11.35

5.39

-13.93

Gardening and pet care

-0.86

-15.91

-4.13

-15.44

50.97

Construction and repairs

-8.82

-8.82

-8.82

-8.82

23.36

Shopping and services

11.75

-16.99

-2.26

6.86

2.82

Childcare

17.17

-22.03

5.45

2.60

-21.83

Adult household care

-4.61

-4.61

-4.61

-1.55

-4.61

Volunteer work and meetings Travel related to committed activities Social life

1.55

-17.87

-17.87

7.22

-15.49

7.32

-14.04

-4.89

9.86

2.74

-1.92

17.17

-15.55

8.10

10.26

-15.40

4.08

14.93

11.83

-15.34

Entertainment and culture Resting and time out

-5.16

6.67

7.69

-2.31

-5.30

Sports and outdoor activities

14.43

22.10

-13.94

4.90

-0.73

Arts

-9.12

-9.12

-9.12

-9.12

-9.12

Computing

-10.77

18.84

-11.36

-12.83

23.66

Games

-19.80

10.84

-19.80

13.87

25.25

Reading

4.08

-20.05

-13.83

34.80

1.50

Watching TV and videos

34.26

53.10

-25.96

9.14

8.20

Listening to radio and music Travel related to leisure activities and other unspecified time

-8.74

-8.74

-8.74

32.19

-8.74

-6.88

6.64

-1.06

11.76

2.06

47

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 2.4. (Continued) Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators.

Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot of leisure time

Indicator

Cluster 7. People committed to caring for relatives

Cluster 8. Eclectics (4.30%)

Cluster 9. People who mix leisure time and studies

Robust Wald statistic

p

Sleeping

18.18

-44.24

-45.62

2.28

235.78

0.00

Eating and drinking

-6.43

-10.22

-8.73

3.20

32.94

0.00

Other personal care

4.89

-3.07

1.06

-2.40

12.87

0.12

Employment

-60.41

69.09

56.41

-61.38

462.64

0.00

Study Travel related to employment and study Household management

-26.40

-26.40

52.50

56.57

158.63

0.00

-7.78

10.66

16.94

-7.78

244.32

0.00

23.12

11.17

-2.47

3.11

162.17

0.00

Food management

19.04

16.56

6.29

-29.43

463.31

0.00

Household upkeep

1.03

7.55

-2.14

-14.28

113.89

0.00

Making and care of textiles

12.96

7.84

0.26

-2.91

459.53

0.00

Gardening and pet care

5.99

-2.37

-4.04

-14.21

244.34

0.00

Construction and repairs

-8.82

26.64

-5.85

-0.07

80.69

0.00

Shopping and services Childcare

-4.78

5.67

-4.24

1.16

534.58

0.00

-22.03

35.25

27.33

-21.91

287.06

0.00

Adult household care

6.24

-4.61

22.97

-4.61

41.25

0.00

Volunteer work and meetings Travel related to committed activities Social life

-9.00

47.10

-4.69

9.06

292.05

0.00

-4.16

8.66

-3.49

-1.99

671.67

0.00

2.69

-8.67

-3.64

-8.44

31.34

0.00

Entertainment and culture

-15.40

-15.40

0.09

30.62

191.28

0.00

Resting and time out

-10.03

-11.78

-8.05

28.25

65.01

0.00

6.29

-11.95

-26.76

5.67

111.31

0.00

39.08

-9.12

0.66

14.96

66.32

0.00

4.27

-9.15

-6.48

3.82

76.69

0.00

Games

10.22

-19.80

-3.10

2.33

222.33

0.00

Reading

5.66

-3.36

-9.44

0.64

95.91

0.00

Watching TV and videos

29.93

-48.00

-38.14

-22.53

189.15

0.00

Listening to radio and music Travel related to leisure activities and other unspecified time

-1.68

-6.54

2.69

8.30

105.32

0.00

-12.66

-11.53

-10.32

21.98

47.41

0.00

significantly

affect

cluster

Sports and outdoor activities Arts Computing

Secondly, with regard to the covariates

did

(RQ2),

membership (p = 0.31). This signifies

significant

effects

were

not

observed for age, sex, marital status,

that

occupation,

exhibited

education

level,

and

all

nine

time

similar

use

patterns frequency

presence of children younger than 10

distributions in relation to the family

at home (p < 0.05). The family income

income (Table 2.5).

48

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 2.5. Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: covariates.

Covariate

AGE

Cluster 1. People who pursue domestic activities

Cluster 2. Sleepyheads and couch potatoes

Cluster 3. Weekend workers

Cluster 4. Book and radio/music lovers during leisure time

Cluster 5. DIY handypeople

0.00

-0.01

0.00

0.03

-0.02

Male

-0.43

0.20

0.08

-0.18

0.54

Female

0.43

-0.20

-0.08

0.18

-0.54

Single

-0.59

-0.01

-0.06

0.14

-0.13

Married/living as a couple

0.10

-0.72

-0.22

0.04

0.21

Widowed

0.91

1.17

0.52

0.51

-0.63

Separated/divorced

-0.42

-0.45

-0.24

-0.69

0.55

Employee

-0.45

-0.97

1.43

-0.59

-0.34

Unemployed

-0.03

-0.41

0.24

-0.01

-0.37

Student

-0.84

0.81

-0.35

-0.22

1.23

Retired

0.24

0.08

-0.97

0.15

0.22

Homemaker

0.07

-0.38

0.14

0.26

-1.89

Other occupation

1.01

0.87

-0.50

0.40

1.14

Without any formal education

-0.24

0.15

0.61

-0.03

0.31

Primary education

0.26

0.09

0.18

-0.03

0.42

SEX

MARITAL STATUS

OCCUPATION

EDUCATION LEVEL

Secondary education

0.08

-0.16

0.08

-0.06

-0.14

Post-secondary non-tertiary education

0.03

0.08

-0.36

0.26

-0.26

Tertiary education

-0.13

-0.16

-0.50

-0.15

-0.33

None

-0.24

0.41

-0.36

-0.35

0.43

At least one

0.24

-0.41

0.36

0.35

-0.43

Under 1201

-0.07

-0.12

-0.08

-0.15

-0.17

1201-2000

0.01

-0.13

0.18

-0.11

-0.10

2001-3000

-0.03

-0.02

-0.05

0.26

0.23

Over 3000

0.09

0.15

-0.40

0.08

0.02

Do not know/no answer

0.01

0.12

0.35

-0.07

0.02

CHILDREN YOUNGER THAN 10 AT HOME

FAMILY INCOME (€)

49

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 2.5. (Continued) Estimated parameters for the nine clusters of Spanish consumers: covariates.

Covariate

AGE

Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot of leisure time

Cluster 7. People committed to caring for relatives

Cluster 8. Eclectics (4.30%)

Cluster 9. People who mix leisure time and studies

Robust Wald statistic

p

0.00

0.00

0.01

-0.01

15.89

0.04

Male

-0.22

-0.09

-0.02

0.12

107.79

0.00

Female

0.22

0.09

0.02

-0.12

Single

-0.39

-0.32

1.47

-0.11

Married/living as a couple

-0.48

0.62

0.98

-0.54

82.84

0.00

Widowed

0.66

-0.13

-3.90

0.88

Separated/divorced

0.21

-0.17

1.44

-0.23

Employee

-0.77

1.25

-0.02

0.45

Unemployed

-0.48

0.63

-0.21

0.64

Student

0.46

-4.66

1.04

2.54

214.27

0.00

Retired

0.57

0.31

-1.21

0.60

Homemaker

0.55

0.56

0.11

0.56

Other occupation

-0.34

1.91

0.29

-4.79

Without any formal education

-1.10

0.49

0.48

-0.67

Primary education

0.14

-0.36

-0.82

0.13

Secondary education

0.24

0.12

-0.06

-0.09

53.19

0.01

Post-secondary non-tertiary education

0.18

-0.22

0.29

0.00

Tertiary education

0.54

-0.02

0.11

0.64

None

0.46

-0.33

-0.38

0.37

81.25

0.00

At least one

-0.46

0.33

0.38

-0.37

Under 1201

0.07

-0.05

0.21

0.36

1201-2000

-0.15

0.15

0.17

-0.01

2001-3000

0.13

-0.08

-0.15

-0.29

35.49

0.31

Over 3000

0.25

-0.31

-0.15

0.27

Do not know/no answer

-0.30

0.28

-0.07

-0.34

SEX

MARITAL STATUS

OCCUPATION

EDUCATION LEVEL

CHILDREN YOUNGER THAN 10 AT HOME

FAMILY INCOME (€)

50

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION 2.4.2.

Profiles of clusters: in search

Cluster 2. Sleepyheads and couch

of what and who

potatoes. This group represents 17.20% of the sample. This cluster is more

Tables 2.6 and 2.7 show the profiles of

focused on necessary and leisure time

the clusters of Spanish consumers. The

(13.99 and 8.41

average times reported by the people

respectively) than the other clusters. The

belonging to each cluster in Table 2.6 are

most salient features are that the people

expressed

facilitate

in this cluster spend almost eleven hours

interpretation although, as noted above,

sleeping and more than three hours

the model estimation was performed

watching TV and videos. More than 60%

using the minutes spent on each main

of them are single.

in

hours

to

hours on average,

activity. Table 2.7 provides information on the average age and the frequency

Cluster 3. Weekend workers. This

distribution of the other covariates for

cluster contains 13.14% of the sample.

each time use pattern. The only non-

These people spend an average of more

significant covariate (family income) has

than five hours working on a weekend

been omitted here for reasons of space.

day. Approximately 60% are men, almost

The first row in these tables contains the

all are in the labour market, and this

name assigned to each cluster, in addition

cluster contains the highest proportion of

to its relative size. The grey shaded cells

people

mark the highest values (averages or

(46.03%).

with

a

secondary

education

percentages) of rows across the clusters. A summary of the features of the nine

Cluster

4.

Book

and

radio/music

time use patterns of Spanish consumers

lovers during leisure time. The relative

at weekends is presented below.

size of this group is 9.10%. These leisureoriented people (7.79 hours on average)

Cluster

1.

People

pursue

can be differentiated from others in that

domestic activities. This first cluster is

they spend more than two hours reading

the most numerous, representing 35.81%

and listening to radio and music, while the

of the sample. These people, together

weekend sample average reported in

with the consumers in Cluster 7, are those

these two activities is less than half an

who dedicate most time to committed

hour.

activities

proportion of older females.

(more

particularly

food

who

than

five

hours),

management

This

group

contains

a

higher

and

household upkeep. This cluster contains

Cluster 5. DIY (Do It Yourself) handy-

the

females

people. 7.27% are people who are

(almost 70%) and more than half of them

characterised by the fact that they spend

are not employed.

half of their committed time (3.31 hours

highest

percentage

of

51

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN on average) pursuing activities related to

Cluster

8.

gardening and pet care, and construction

represents 4.30% of the sample. They

and repairs. These consumers are those

carry out a wide range of activities on a

who spend most time eating and drinking,

weekend day; their time is fairly equally

computing, and playing games. In this

distributed in the pursuit of contracted,

cluster, almost 80% are men and more

committed and leisure activities (3.69,

than 39% have a primary education.

4.04,

and

Eclectics.

4.69

hours

This

on

group

average,

respectively). Nearly 40% of this group Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot

lives in a home without children under 10

of leisure time. This group contains

years old.

4.79% of the sample. Like Clusters 2, 4, and

9,

they

leisure-oriented

Cluster 9. People who mix leisure

consumers (7.39 hours on average), but

time and studies. The remaining 3.89%

they have a high propensity towards

are

carrying out activities linked with arts on

predilection for spending part of their time

a weekend day (0.80 opposed to 0.06

pursuing activities linked to leisure, such

hours on average for the overall sample).

as entertainment and culture, resting and

Most of the people in this group are

time out, and travel related to leisure

women (63.44%) and live in a home

activities and other unspecified time.

without

Furthermore,

children

are

younger

than

10

(91.19%).

Spanish

consumers with

together

a

with

high

the

consumers in Cluster 8, they spend the highest amount of time on study. This

Cluster 7. People committed to caring

cluster has higher proportions of young

for relatives. The relative size of this

(M = 33.87) and single (60.88%) people,

group is 4.50%. This cluster exemplifies

and students (41.44%).

time poverty on a weekend day, with less leisure time (3.81 hours on average) in

Kamakura (2009, p. 353) indicates that

comparison to the other clusters owing to

‘average

the fact that more time is spent on

across

committed activities (particularly food

misleading because not all participants

management, childcare, and volunteer

engage in all activities during a day’. As

work and meetings) (6.20 hours on

suggested

average). With regard to the socio-

calculated the propensity to engage in

demographic profile, 84.16% are married

each

or

(incidence

living

as

a

couple,

78.79%

are

time

allocations

individuals

by

are

Kamakura

activity rates)

computed potentially

(2009),

within (Appendix

we

clusters A).

An

employed, and 40.91% live in a home

examination of this table leads to similar

with children younger than 10.

conclusions to those regarding Table 2.6. Both tables show that Spanish consumers

52

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION were correctly grouped based on their

therefore as regards the average amount

individual differences in the propensity to

of hours spent on each activity (Table

engage in each activity (Appendix A), and

2.6).

Table 2.6. Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators.

Cluster 3. Weekend workers (13.14%)

Cluster 4. Book and radio/music lovers during leisure time (9.10%)

Cluster 5. DIY handypeople (7.27%)

13.99

11.59

12.32

13.14

Indicator (hours)

Cluster 1. People who pursue domestic activities (35.81%)

Cluster 2. Sleepyheads and couch potatoes (17.20%)

1. NECESSARY TIME

12.80

Sleeping

9.59

10.87

8.73

9.14

9.76

Eating and drinking

2.29

2.24

2.03

2.19

2.47

Other personal care

0.92

0.88

0.83

0.99

0.91

2. CONTRACTED TIME

0.00

0.65

5.50

0.00

0.61

Employment

0.00

0.00

5.05

0.00

0.00

Study Travel related to employment and study 3. COMMITTED TIME

0.00

0.65

0.00

0.00

0.61

0.00

0.00

0.45

0.00

0.00

5.21

0.95

2.12

3.89

3.31

Household management

0.19

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

Food management

1.54

0.48

0.61

1.12

0.46

Household upkeep

0.91

0.46

0.40

0.75

0.54

Making and care of textiles

0.51

0.00

0.05

0.33

0.01

Gardening and pet care

0.25

0.00

0.20

0.01

1.11

Construction and repairs

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.54

Shopping and services

0.48

0.00

0.25

0.40

0.33

Childcare

0.65

0.00

0.46

0.41

0.00

Adult household care

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.05

0.00

Volunteer work and meetings Travel related to committed activities 4. LEISURE TIME

0.32

0.00

0.00

0.42

0.04

0.36

0.00

0.15

0.40

0.28

5.99

8.41

4.79

7.79

6.93

Social life

0.79

1.11

0.56

0.96

0.99

Entertainment and culture

0.00

0.32

0.51

0.45

0.00

Resting and time out

0.19

0.38

0.40

0.23

0.18

Sports and outdoor activities

1.02

1.15

0.55

0.86

0.77

Arts

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

Computing

0.22

0.71

0.21

0.18

0.79

Games

0.00

0.51

0.00

0.56

0.75

Reading

0.45

0.05

0.15

1.35

0.41

Watching TV and videos

2.79

3.42

1.78

1.67

2.35

Listening to radio and music Travel related to leisure activities and other unspecified time

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.68

0.00

0.53

0.76

0.63

0.84

0.68

53

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 2.6. (Continued) Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: indicators.

Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot of leisure time (4.79%)

Cluster 7. People committed to caring for relatives (4.50%)

Cluster 8. Eclectics (4.30%)

Cluster 9. People who mix leisure time and studies (3.89%)

Total

12.74

11.51

11.58

12.52

12.70

Sleeping

9.69

8.65

8.63

9.43

9.58

Eating and drinking

2.06

2.00

2.02

2.22

2.21

Other personal care

0.99

0.86

0.93

0.87

0.91

0.02

2.48

3.69

1.38

1.20

Employment

0.02

2.17

1.96

0.00

0.85

Indicator (hours)

1. NECESSARY TIME

2. CONTRACTED TIME

Study

0.00

0.00

1.31

1.38

0.27

Travel related to employment and study

0.00

0.31

0.41

0.00

0.09

3. COMMITTED TIME

3.86

6.20

4.04

2.27

3.63

Household management

0.54

0.34

0.11

0.21

0.12

Food management

1.20

1.16

0.99

0.39

1.01

Household upkeep

0.61

0.71

0.55

0.35

0.67

Making and care of textiles

0.46

0.37

0.25

0.19

0.28

Gardening and pet care

0.36

0.23

0.20

0.03

0.23

Construction and repairs

0.00

0.59

0.05

0.15

0.07

Shopping and services

0.20

0.38

0.21

0.30

0.31

Childcare

0.00

0.95

0.82

0.00

0.41

Adult household care

0.18

0.00

0.46

0.00

0.03

Volunteer work and meetings

0.15

1.08

0.22

0.45

0.24

Travel related to committed activities

0.16

0.38

0.18

0.20

0.24

7.38

3.81

4.69

7.83

6.46

Social life

0.87

0.68

0.76

0.68

0.84

Entertainment and culture

0.00

0.00

0.26

0.77

0.20

Resting and time out

0.10

0.08

0.14

0.74

0.26

Sports and outdoor activities

0.89

0.58

0.34

0.88

0.89

Arts

0.80

0.00

0.16

0.40

0.06

Computing

0.47

0.24

0.29

0.46

0.37

Games

0.50

0.00

0.28

0.37

0.24

Reading

0.48

0.33

0.23

0.39

0.40

Watching TV and videos

2.71

1.41

1.58

1.84

2.48

Listening to radio and music

0.12

0.04

0.19

0.28

0.09

Travel related to leisure activities and other unspecified time

0.44

0.46

0.48

1.01

0.63

4. LEISURE TIME

54

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 2.7. Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: significant covariates.

Cluster 3. Weekend workers (13.14%)

Cluster 4. Book and radio/music lovers during leisure time (9.10%)

Cluster 5. DIY handypeople (7.27%)

36.93

41.49

51.58

38.83

31.00%

54.87%

60.33%

42.49%

76.56%

69.00%

45.13%

39.67%

57.51%

23.44%

Single

13.86%

60.64%

28.74%

20.42%

44.11%

Married/living as a couple

72.58%

28.68%

64.77%

70.24%

50.71%

Widowed

9.63%

7.94%

1.44%

6.74%

0.64%

Separated/divorced

3.93%

2.74%

5.06%

2.59%

4.55%

Employee

43.73%

28.46%

86.20%

40.48%

43.84%

Unemployed

13.17%

10.13%

6.01%

12.48%

Student

2.62%

38.41%

2.88%

3.93%

30.62%

Retired

14.87%

12.35%

1.28%

21.38%

13.76%

Homemaker

18.07%

4.12%

3.28%

17.41%

0.65%

7.54%

6.53%

0.36%

4.30%

3.06%

2.37%

3.84%

1.80%

3.08%

2.60%

Cluster 1. People who pursue domestic activities (35.81%)

Cluster 2. Sleepyheads and couch potatoes (17.20%)

50.07

Male Female

Covariate

AGE SEX

MARITAL STATUS

OCCUPATION

Other occupation

8.06%

EDUCATION LEVEL Without any formal education Primary education

31.05%

35.93%

18.82%

29.30%

39.07%

Secondary education

35.66%

35.06%

46.03%

33.40%

34.96%

Post-secondary non-tertiary education

11.78%

10.94%

13.15%

14.60%

9.12%

Tertiary education

19.14%

14.22%

20.19%

19.63%

14.25%

None

71.48%

87.98%

61.71%

72.34%

86.32%

At least one

28.52%

12.02%

38.29%

27.66%

13.68%

CHILDREN YOUNGER THAN 10 AT HOME

55

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 2.7. (Continued) Profiles of clusters of Spanish consumers: significant covariates.

Covariate

AGE

Cluster 6. Cluster 7. Art lovers People with quite a committed lot of leisure to caring for time relatives (4.79%) (4.50%)

Cluster 8. Eclectics (4.30%)

Cluster 9. People who mix leisure time and studies (3.89%)

Total

49.44

44.52

38.23

33.87

44.58

Male

36.56%

52.56%

48.35%

51.14%

46.08%

Female

63.44%

47.44%

51.65%

48.86%

53.92%

Single

28.04%

11.64%

41.76%

60.88%

30.26%

Married/living as a couple

57.02%

84.16%

51.65%

33.04%

59.54%

SEX

MARITAL STATUS

Widowed

6.91%

1.05%

0.00%

2.43%

6.14%

Separated/divorced

8.03%

3.15%

6.59%

3.65%

4.06%

78.79%

60.44%

37.69%

48.07%

8.87%

8.39%

10.99%

9.72%

10.62%

Student

11.13%

0.00%

17.58%

41.44%

13.41%

Retired

22.89%

4.20%

2.20%

7.31%

12.23%

Homemaker

19.58%

6.52%

7.70%

3.84%

10.95%

Other occupation

1.97%

2.10%

1.10%

0.00%

4.72%

0.99%

2.10%

3.30%

1.29%

2.56%

Primary education

29.51%

11.90%

12.09%

30.70%

28.94%

Secondary education

35.98%

42.99%

39.56%

32.78%

37.06%

13.64%

18.68%

8.51%

11.99%

24.64%

29.37%

26.38%

26.73%

19.45%

None

91.19%

59.09%

61.54%

85.40%

74.69%

At least one

8.81%

40.91%

38.46%

14.60%

25.31%

OCCUPATION Employee Unemployed

35.56%

EDUCATION LEVEL Without any formal education

Post-secondary non-tertiary education Tertiary education

8.89%

CHILDREN YOUNGER THAN 10 AT HOME

56

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION In

order

more

(Cluster 4), art lovers with quite a lot of

comprehensive analysis of what they

leisure time (Cluster 6), and people who

spend their time on, we assessed multi-

pursue domestic activities (Cluster 1)

tasking style, and computer/Internet use

spend part of their time doing two or more

when performing a principal or secondary

activities at the same time than those

activity (a broader category than the

people

principal activity called ‘computing’). Each

sleepyheads and couch potatoes (Cluster

individual was assigned to a cluster

2) and weekend workers (Cluster 3).

according to the probability of her/him

Secondly, both the DIY handy-people

having

pattern.

(Cluster 5) and the sleepyheads and

Differences were found both among the

couch potatoes (Cluster 2) spend more

clusters identified in multi-tasking style

time using the computer or the Internet

and in computer/Internet use (p < 0.05).

when

Firstly, it is more probable that the book

secondary activities than the consumers

and radio/music lovers during leisure time

in Clusters 1, 3, 4, and 7 (Table 2.8)

a

to

attain

specific

time

a

use

in

the

clusters

performing

their

containing

principal

or

Table 2.8. Differences in multi-tasking style and computer/Internet use between clusters of Spanish consumers.

Hours Cluster

Performing various activities at the same time

Using computer/ Internet in the main or secondary activity

M (SD) Cluster 1. People who pursue domestic activities

3.64 (3.24)

0.26 (0.66)

Cluster 2. Sleepyheads and couch potatoes

2.92 (3.22)

1.02 (1.76)

Cluster 3. Weekend workers

2.69 (3.03)

0.58 (1.47)

Cluster 4. Book and radio/music lovers during leisure time

4.24 (3.28)

0.39 (0.90)

Cluster 5. DIY handy-people

3.60 (3.31)

1.15 (1.70)

Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot of leisure time

4.08 (3.11)

0.77 (1.38)

Cluster 7. People committed to caring for relatives

3.73 (2.96)

0.42 (0.91)

Cluster 8. Eclectics

3.79 (3.08)

0.97 (1.54)

Cluster 9. People who mix leisure time and studies

3.56 (3.21)

0.71 (0.91)

LEVENE TEST F

1.18

41.51

p

0.31

0.00

F

5.80

17.69a

p

0.00

0.00

ANOVA/WELCH TEST

POST HOC TESTS (TUKEY HDS/GAMES-HOWELL TEST)

p < 0.05

C1 > C2, C3; C4 > C2, C3; C6 > C2, C3

C2 C3 C5 C6 C8 C9

> > > > > >

C1, C3, C4, C7; C1; C1, C3, C4, C7; C1; C1, C4; C1

Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation; C1-9: Cluster 1 to 9; aAsymptotically F distributed.

57

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 2.9. Tests of independence between cluster membership of Spanish consumers and kind of day.

Pearson chi-square test

Kind of day

χ (df)

p

2

Ordinary/unusual day

8.41 (8)

0.39

Busy day (yes/no)

9.26 (8)

0.32

Sick leave day (yes/no)

10.56 (8)

0.23

Holiday or vacation day (yes/no)

12.66 (8)

0.12

Travel day (yes/no)

11.56 (8)

0.17

32.00 (24)

0.13

Quarter of the year (IV/2009, I/2010, II/2010, III/2010)

Bearing in mind that the TUS data are

membership

cross-sectional

an

variables related to the kind of day (p >

individual and a specific day) rather than

0.05), suggesting that the nine time use

longitudinal, it might be necessary to ask

patterns

to what extent the nine clusters identified

individual differences and not to the

above really do correspond with the time

kind of day.

use

patterns

(interactions

developed

by

of

and

were

the

aforementioned

really

owing

to

different

individuals and are not explained by the

2.4.3.

existence of weekend days with different

Activity rhythms: in search of when

characteristics. The activity rhythms were measured Robinson and Godbey (2000) point out

through the percentage of people who

the fact that temporal factors (e.g. day of

spent their time on the same kind of

the week, month or season of the year, or

activity

year) can greatly affect how time is spent.

committed, and leisure activities) at the

Although all the diaries used in this

same time on a weekend day (Figure

research were related to a weekend day

2.2). The last line graph, entitled ‘Total’,

(Saturday or Sunday), we believed that it

provides the activity rhythms of the

would be appropriate to analyse the

Spanish consumers on a weekend day:

statistical

the

from 6:00 to 10:00, most people spend

(cluster

their time in necessary activities; from

membership) and the kind of day (i.e.

11:00 to 13:00, about 40% spend their

an ordinary/unusual day, a busy day, a

time on committed activities; from

sick leave day, a holiday or vacation day,

14:00 to 15:00, the necessary time is

a travel day, and quarter of the year).

predominant; from 16:00 to 23:00, a

nine

association

time

use

between

patterns

higher Table 2.9

(necessary,

percentage

of

contracted,

people

pursue

shows that no statistical

leisure activities; and from midnight,

associations were found between cluster

almost all perform necessary activities.

58

100%

100%

Cluster 5. DIY handy-people

Cluster 7. People committed to caring for relatives

Cluster 9. People who mix leisure time and studies

Necessary time

Contracted time 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00

100% 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00

06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00

Cluster 3. Weekend workers

06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00

06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00

100% 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00

06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00

Cluster 1. People who pursue domestic activities 100%

80% 80%

60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20%

0% 0%

100%

80% 80%

60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20%

0% 0%

100%

80% 80%

60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20%

0% 0%

80% 80%

60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20%

0% 0%

80%

80%

60%

60%

40%

40%

20%

20%

0%

0%

06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00

06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00

100%

06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 00:00 01:00 02:00 03:00 04:00 05:00

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Figure 2.2.

Activity rhythms of each cluster of Spanish consumers.

Cluster 2. Sleepyheads and couch potatoes

Cluster 4. Book and radio/music lovers during leisure time

Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot of leisure time

100%

Cluster 8. Eclectics

100%

Total

Committed time

Leisure time

59

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Figure 2.2 is extremely valuable since it

2009). The main conclusions obtained

highlights some differences between and

as regards the three research questions

similarities in the timing in the nine

posed are detailed as follows.

clusters (RQ3). With

regard

to

the

first

research

It is thus interesting to observe that

question, nine clusters based on the time

almost

spent on each activity at weekends have

all

the

clusters

are

focused,

although with different intensities, on

been

leisure activities during a weekend

domestic

afternoon, with the exception of the

couch potatoes, weekend workers, book

cluster that contains people committed

and radio/music lovers during leisure

to caring for relatives (Cluster 7). The

time, DIY handy-people, art lovers with

sleepyheads and couch potatoes (Cluster

quite

2) and those who mix leisure time and

committed

studies (Cluster 9) are the only people

eclectics, and people who mix leisure time

whose

clearly

and studies. All the activities considered

predominates over other types of time in

are relevant as regards segmenting the

the

workers

consumers into these nine groups, with

maximum

the exception of the time dedicated to

leisure

morning.

(Cluster

3)

time The

also

weekend

contains

the

identified:

a

people

activities,

lot

of to

personal

who

pursue

sleepyheads

leisure caring

for

relatives,

other

contracted activities from 10:00 to 13:00.

significant differences can be observed in

More detailed interpretations for each

the relative size of the various groups.

cluster of Spanish consumers could be

The

extracted from Figure 2.2.

domestic

three

What

people

percentage of people who carry out

first

care.

time,

and

(people

activities,

is

who

more,

pursue

sleepyheads

and

couch potatoes, and weekend workers) 2.5.

Discussion and conclusions

comprise 66.15% of the sample, while the set size of the last four (art lovers with

The objective of the first study has

quite

been to identify and describe the time use

committed

patterns

eclectics, and people who mix leisure time

of

Spanish

consumers

at

weekends. This is relevant from both

a

lot

of to

leisure caring

time, for

people

relatives,

and studies) does not reach 18%.

academic and professional perspectives, particularly when bearing in mind the

That which is described in the paragraph

scant

above

amount

of

previous

empirical

has

important

practical

research in the sphere of consumer

implications for marketers and public

behaviour oriented towards carrying out a

policy makers since it may help them to

market segmentation based on time use

understand which time use patterns are

(Jäckel & Wollscheid, 2007; Kamakura,

more

60

or

less

common

amongst

the

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Spanish at weekends. From the point of

younger than 10 at home. However,

view of social policy, the fact that two of

unlike what we expected to find a priori

the three largest groups (those who

based on the empirical evidence (Jäckel &

pursue domestic activities and weekend

Wollscheid, 2007), we have found no

workers)

at

differences in family income among the

weekends should be the object of more

nine groups identified. This result may, in

in-depth

when

part, be because over 20% of the sample

has been

chose the ‘do not know/no answer’ option

indicated by diverse authors, social time

when responding to this question, which

during weekends has a great impact on

considerably reduces the discriminant

emotional

power of this variable.

bearing

are

time-poor

analysis, in

mind

clusters

particularly that, as

well-being

(Young

&

Lim,

2014). In

relation

to

the

third

research

It is also noteworthy that two of the

question, we have discovered that the

groups that spend most time carrying out

nine clusters identified are associated

various activities at once (Clusters 4 and

with various timing or activity rhythms

6) are clusters with quite a lot of leisure

during a weekend. This information is

time. This does not coincide with what has

truly valuable as regards allowing leisure-

been found in other previous studies

related business to organise their leisure

which suggest that the multi-tasking style

proposals/activities

is almost exclusive to consumers who

(concerning both duration and schedule)

need a response to strong time pressure

by considering the specific profile of the

(Kenyon,

2008).

consumers that they wish to attract. For

therefore

to

It

is

conclude

reasonable that

for

the

weekend

time

example, the target market of a book

management strategies based on multi-

release event or a cultural activity should

tasking styles not only respond to little

be the subjects belonging to Clusters 4

free time but also to personal tendencies

and 6 (book and radio/music lovers

and preference as regards the way in

during leisure time, and art lovers with

which time is organised (independently of

quite a lot of leisure time). In order to

the time pressure experienced).

influence the public, they should therefore programme these events to take place in

With respect to the second research

the afternoon/evening (between 16:00

question, we have been able to conclude

and 20:00 at weekends), since a greater

that the various time use patterns are

proportion of the consumers in these two

effectively associated with differences in

groups enjoy their leisure during this time

socio-demographic profile as regards age,

span. Similar practical implications can be

gender, marital status, occupation, level

extracted for other types of activities

of education, and presence of children

related to the leisure industry.

61

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN In interpreting the results of this study,

interest, particularly when bearing in

several

mind that in Spain there is even a

limitations

should

be

considered.

National

Commission

for

the

rationalisation of schedules and their Firstly, two of these limitations are related

standardisation

to the characteristics of the method that

Union

is used internationally in the sphere of

Commission

time use surveys: the data used are

things, that private TV channels should

cross-sectional, and to make advances

bring forward their prime-time shows in

in this respect it would be interesting to

order to encourage Spanish people to go

be able to have longitudinal panel data

to bed earlier. Whatever the case, it

(Kamakura, 2009); and the method

would certainly be interesting to carry out

used

participants’

cross-cultural studies in order to be able

capacity, constancy and motivation if

to obtain a more in-depth analysis of the

they are to complete an exhaustive

differences

activities

countries.

requires

the

diary

(Jäckel

this

research

&

Wollscheid,

2007). Secondly,

has

focused

exclusively on weekends for the reasons given in the Introduction of this chapter. Nevertheless, in future studies it would be interesting methodology

to

apply

followed

additionally analyse the

the in

same

order

existence

to of

rich/poor clusters in terms of weekday leisure time. Finally, the findings are circumscribed to the sphere of Spanish consumers. We do not believe that this detracts from the importance of the research, since we are dealing with a country with certain very interesting

cultural

particularities

as

regards schedule (e.g. a considerable percentage

of

consumers

are

still

watching TV at midnight). In fact, we consider that this increases the study’s

62

with

countries. proposes,

and

other This

European National

among

similarities

other

between

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION

CHAPTER 3.

MARKET

SEGMENTATION

BASED ON TIME USE: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS IN THE HISTORIC CITY OF TOLEDO, SPAIN

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION CHAPTER 3. MARKET SEGMENTATION

times,

and

attraction

opening

BASED ON TIME USE: AN EMPIRICAL

(Dickinson & Peeters, 2014). Constraints

ANALYSIS IN THE HISTORIC CITY OF

have been

TOLEDO, SPAIN

categories: intrapersonal (psychological),

classified in

interpersonal

hours

three major

(interactions

and

relationships), and structural (financial and temporal) (Crawford, Jackson, & 3.1.

Introduction

Godbey, 1991;

Nyaupane, Morais, &

Graefe, 2004). Time is considered as a Time use is a frequent research topic in

structural constraint that predetermines

the literature appertaining to a wide

the activities which can be pursued at the

range of disciplines, such as sociology,

destination

economics,

Andronikidis, 2013).

urban

planning,

and

(Vassiliadis,

Priporas,

&

transportation (Kamakura, 2009). The lack of time in modern societies has

Visitors need to determine not only how

become

important

much time is needed to travel to and from

problems (Anderson, Golden, Umesh, &

the destination, but also how much time

Weeks, 1992) given that, unlike money,

should be allocated to each activity in

it is impossible to postpone its use

order to experience the place visited

(Kamakura, 2009). In fact, lack of time

(Haldrup, 2004). Examinations of time

and excess of information may even

use and activity patterns allow a more

eclipse the importance of money. It may

exhaustive understanding of visitors’

occur that people with relatively high

decisions, which can lead to better

incomes are poor as regards free time

marketing strategies and more economic

(income-rich/time-poor), and not having

growth (LaMondia, 2010). On the one

the time needed to carry out their leisure

hand, time allocated to activities provide

activities may lead to dissatisfaction in

useful insights into decisions that might

their lives (Jäckel & Wollscheid, 2007).

improve

one

of

the

most

levels

of

services

at

destinations (Zhang et al., 2012). On the Within the area of tourism, time and

other hand, time is an important resource

money are the two scarce resources

in the touristic experience (Prebensen,

that are of most importance to visitors

Vittersø, & Dahl, 2013). Increasing the

(Zhang, Zhang, & Kuwano, 2012), be

quality of time use during travel may

they day-trippers (those who do not

therefore

spend the night at the destination) or

satisfaction and the probability of them

tourists (those who do). All touristic visits

revisiting and recommending it to others,

have a time limit and are conditioned by

which

the schedules of public transport, meal

competitive position to improve.

will

serve

to

permit

increase

the

visitors’

destination’s

65

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Despite the fact that time is a precious

of time use in tourism, which is followed

resource

by

for

visitors,

relatively

little

a

presentation

of

the

method.

specifically relating to tourism and time

Empirical results (market segmentation

has

years

based on time use and differences in

(Dickinson & Peeters, 2014). In this

outcome variables) are then analysed

respect, and based on an in-depth review

before our final conclusions are drawn,

of

and

been

the

written

current

in

recent

tourism

literature,

LaMondia (2010, p. 11) points out that ‘the understanding many

and

future

research

opportunities are discussed.

of time use and

activities within this field is incomplete and

limitations

opportunities

for

3.2.

Literature review

3.2.1.

The key role of time use: from

further

analysis currently exist’. This chapter in fact fills one of the many existing gaps by

marketing

evaluating time use at the destination as

tourism

and

leisure

to

a segmentation criterion/base in tourism. This is a relevant contribution if we bear

Empirical and theoretical research has

in mind that we have been unable to find

recently

any

marketing, leisure, and tourism areas

previous

empirical

studies

that

been

the

the basis of this segmentation criterion.

consumers/visitors’ behaviour when they

More specifically, the study presented

decide how to spend their time. The

herein has two research objectives.

researchers who most stand out in the

The first is to identify the various

first

segments of visitors to the historic city

marketing and consumer studies, are

of Toledo as regards both day-trippers

Okada and Hoch (2004), who focus their

and tourists, according to the amount of

interest

time spent pursuing different activities.

different evaluation of the opportunity

The second is to determine whether

cost associated with their time or money.

there

their

The second group of studies is focused

spending, the image that they have of

on factors that determine timestyle and

the destination after visiting it, and their

its influence on leisure activities (Cotte &

intention to revisit and recommend as

Ratneshwar, 2003). In the third group,

regards the various segments identified

tourism researchers incorporate time

according to their time use.

use and activity patterns into their studies

differences

in

group,

on

which

how

factors

in

that

any

which

out

analyse the heterogeneity of visitors on

are

study

carried

is

influence

related

to

consumers make a

in a number of ways, including how time The remainder of the third chapter is

use and activities are integrated into the

organised as follows. The next section

tourism decision-making process, and the

focuses on a literature review of the role

role of preferences and perceptions in

66

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION determining

time

use

and

activities

(LaMondia, 2010).

associated with the time available to them at the destination. On the other hand, a high

proportion

of

visitors

have

a

Within the first group of researches,

high/medium need for variety (Barroso,

Okada and Hoch (2004) find differences

Martín, & Martín, 2007), signifying that

in the way that people spend time versus

they attempt to optimize their time

money. Specifically, it would appear that

because they will probably not return to

consumers are more willing to waste their

the destination. In this context, the

time than their money. This is owing to

ambiguity

the fact that individuals are flexible in

substantially reduced. In an experiment

valuing their time, and if the experience

in which athletic shoes could only be paid

is negative, they infer a lesser value to

in time, a negative outcome could be

the

exchange

relativized and a consumer could say ‘It

transaction (Okada & Hoch, 2004), since

cost me no money, just time’ or ‘At least

it is more difficult to make an evaluation

I didn't pay money’ (Okada & Hoch,

of the opportunity cost of time (Soman,

2004). However, in the case of tourist

2001). Some authors have referred to

activities, including those on which no

this as ambiguity of the value of time or

money is spent (e.g. a visit to a museum

elastic justification (Hsee, 1995). An

whose entrance is free), the result of an

important question therefore arises: are

unsatisfactory experience would probably

visitors really arbitrary when evaluating

be ‘It was a huge waste of time’. It would

their

therefore appear that on a tourist visit

time

time

spent

during

in

the

their

stay

at

a

destination?

of

the

value

of

time

is

‘Time is gold’, thus making it an asset that is similar to or perhaps even more

The

characteristics

of

a

tourist

trip

valuable than money.

suggest that visitors are not so arbitrary when making decisions regarding how to

In

spend their time. On the one hand, the

Ratneshwar (2003, p. 560) point out that

existence of a trip plan (i.e. visitors are

‘leisure

required to consider a number of facets

patterns can be explained, at least in part,

such as travel destination, activities,

by people’s timestyles’. Feldman and

accommodation, attractions, or length of

Hornik (1981, p. 407) define timestyle as

trip) (Park, Nicolau, & Fesenmaier, 2013)

‘the allocation of time among the various

and the constraints imposed by activities

activities’. Cotte and Ratneshwar (2003)

that are finite in space and time (Xiao-

propose

Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012) are common to

determined by four key dimensions:

almost all tourist trips. This helps visitors

social orientation (time for self versus

to

time

calculate

the

opportunity

cost

the

second

group,

behaviours

that

with/for

and

timestyles

others);

Cotte

and

consumption

should

be

temporal

67

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN orientation (the relative significance of

destination

past,

spontaneous trip decision making, and

present

or

orientation

future);

planning

(analytic

spontaneous);

and

versus polychronic

extent

of

travel

tendency,

advance

level

planning)

of

have

significant impacts on the number of

orientation (multi-tasking style versus

unplanned

stops.

one-thing-at-a-time style).

independent

In

visitors

the or

case

of

backpackers,

previous studies report partially mixed The aforementioned dimensions acquire

results as regards trip planning. Hyde and

tremendous relevance when carrying out

Lawson (2003) conclude that backpackers

an analysis of timestyles in tourism. In

experience an evolving itinerary, are

the first place, with regard to social

willing to take risks, and possess a desire

orientation,

to

the

composition

of

the

experience

the

unplanned;

while

travel group (tour group, travelling alone,

Hottola (2005) identifies that almost all

presence of children, etc.) conditions the

the backpackers surveyed in India have

activities

the

to some degree planned their tourist trip

destination (LaMondia, 2010). In other

and timetables earlier. Lastly, during a

words,

and/or

tourist visit it is customary to perceive

obligatory activities (Cotte & Ratneshwar,

time in terms of one-thing-at-a-time,

2003). In the second place, time use can

although visitors can perform more than

vary

past

one activity at the same time (Vassiliadis

experiences or familiarity with the

et al., 2013) (e.g. strolling and shopping,

destination.

walking and seeing monuments, etc.).

to

be

there

are

greatly

visitors

carried

out

voluntary

according First-time

consume

the

at

to and

repeat

destination

in

substantially different ways (i.e. first-time

In the third group, tourism researchers

visitors are interested in exploring, and

incorporate time use and activity patterns

repeaters are more interested in passive

into their studies in a number of ways

consumption) (McKercher, Shoval, Ng, &

(LaMondia,

Birenboim, 2012). In the third place, with

have commonly ignored the ‘where’,

regard to planning orientation, Hwang

concentrating

and Fesenmaier (2011, p. 412) point out

‘what’ (Fennell, 1996); while tourism

that ‘unplanned attraction visits are a

researchers who are geographers have

substantial part of pleasure travel’. These

focused on spatial-temporal behaviour

authors find that trip plan characteristics

patterns

(planned

of

Vassiliadis et al. (2013), who belong to

activities planned, and number of planned

the former, examine time distribution and

stops)

and

the activity allocation of visitors to ski

(past

travel

length

of

stay,

trip/visitor experience,

number

characteristics number

of

purposes, travelling with children, multi-

68

2010).

Non-geographers

on

(McKercher

the

et

‘when’

al.,

and

2012).

resorts using an analysis based on time blocks.

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Within the geographic sphere, the time-

permitting the normal notions of time to

space concept introduced by Hägerstrand

be suspended (Wilson & Richards, 2008).

(1970) in order to develop a type of socio-

More recently, Hottola (2012) suggests

economic web model, has had a great

that time-budget studies with a focus on

influence on the way in which tourism and

metaspaces could be one instrument to

leisure are conceived (Coles & Hall, 2006;

research whether independents visitors

Hall, 2005, 2012). Hägerstrand (1970)

spend less time in metaspacial retreats

proposes that the combined effect of

and interact more with the local people

three types of constraints (capability,

than package visitors.

coupling,

and

authority

constraints)

condition

the

individual’s

ability

to

3.2.2.

Market

heterogeneity:

move/change from one place/activity to

towards

another. In this respect, Shoval (2012)

segmentation based on time

proposes the following

use

adaptation

of

a

tourism

market

these time geography constraints for tourists’ time-space activity: capability

Various theoretical and empirical studies

constraints (the need for a minimum

suggest the utility of time use as a

amount of sleep and food, the kind of

segmentation criterion (Davies & Omer,

transport used, and the length of stay);

1996; Kamakura, 2009; Schary, 1971).

coupling constraints (the composition

Davies and Omer (1996, p. 264) conclude

of the travel group); and authority

that ‘any new approach will need to

constraints

provide

opening

(e.g.

hours

attractions,

the

the

for

existence

museums

schedules

of

of

an

understanding

of

how

and

customers interact with time so as to help

public

us to develop a way of analysing or

transport, etc.). The contributions of

segmenting

Hottola (2005) are also important, as are

services

those of Wilson and Richards (2008) who

related’. The market segments that are

refer to metaworlds (also termed as

created by time choices could be more

tourist bubbles, enclaves, or touristic

meaningful

metaspaces). Hottola (2005, p. 2) defines

criteria/bases used (Schary, 1971). In

metaworlds as ‘realities placed in time

this

and space that differ from the dominant

empirically proves that individuals differ

reality’. Visitors feel

that they have

in their usage of time in a full day; and

control in these tourist bubbles, and that

people are diverse in both their needs and

they can manage the stress of learning

many

and their cultural confusion, leading them

unobserved heterogeneity in different

to

people’s time priorities.

relax

(Hottola,

2005),

and

thus

markets

whose

other

goods

consumption

than

respect,

for

many Kamakura

factors,

which

is

and time

of

the (2009)

leads

to

69

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN According

to

Wedel

and

Kamakura

indexed in the 2011 Journal Citation

(2000), market segmentation involves

Report

portioning a heterogeneous market into

between 2008 and 2012 (Table 3.1).

smaller homogenous markets. A market

After refining the search results, a total of

can be segmented in a number of ways

90 studies were identified as being

using

empirical

observable/unobservable

direct

versus

(i.e.

inferred

measurement)

general/product-specific

(i.e.

independent

of

circumstances

versus

Social

Sciences

articles

methodological

or

Edition®

(i.e.

without

theoretical

reviews,

book

reviews,

papers,

corrections,

proceedings or

editorial

tourism

market

related to the particular circumstances)

materials)

bases. Six conditions have been put

segmentation (i.e. without businesses

forward as determining the effectiveness

clusters, or segmentation of companies,

and profitability of market segmentation

residents, non-travellers and countries)

strategies: identifiability, substantiality,

(Appendix B). Surprisingly, in spite of

accessibility, stability, actionability, and

the growing interest in this research topic,

responsiveness

no tourism studies have been found that

(Wedel

&

Kamakura,

2000).

on

papers,

identify segments of visitors according to the time dedicated to pursuing various

Tourism

researchers

have

suggested

activities at the destination.

diverse segmentation criteria/bases and have applied them in order to

As will be observed in Table 3.1, 18 of

understand visitors’ behaviours. Bigné,

the

Gnoth,

activities

and

Andreu

(2007),

and

90

articles and

analysed

motivations

propose as

a

Tkaczynski, Rundle-Thiele, and Beaumont

segmentation criterion (e.g. Nimrod &

(2009), provide excellent summaries of

Rotem, 2010; Park & Yoon, 2009). The

research

studies in this group evaluate the market

on

segmentation.

tourism More

market

specifically,

the

heterogeneity

based

on

the

various

segmentation of cultural and heritage

activity types participated in or the main

visitors has been the topic of numerous

purpose

empirical studies (Galí & Donaire, 2006;

effectiveness

Tchetchik, Fleischer, & Shoval, 2009).

criterion may be reduced in the case of a

of

the

trip.

of

this

However,

the

segmentation

specific cultural destination (such as that In order to provide a more complete

considered in the research presented

overview

herein), where, for example, almost all

of

current

tendencies

in

tourist segmentation, we have used

individuals

the Web of Science® database to analyse

monuments. In spite of this, none of the

the

studies analysed quantify how much

empirical

segmentation

articles

published in the 12 tourism journals

70

visit

museums

time is dedicated to each activity.

and

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 3.1. Criteria/bases and evolution of tourism segmentation studies published between 2008 and 2012: tourism journals indexed in 2011 Journal Citation Report Social Sciences Edition®.

Concept

Percentage (N = 90)

SEGMENTATION CRITERIA/BASES

100.00%

Activities and motivations

20.00%

Environmental behaviour and attitudes

8.89%

Expenditure

6.67%

Price sensitivity

5.56%

Spatial-temporal patterns

5.56%

Loyalty intentions and behaviours

4.44%

Tourism decision-making process

4.44%

Destination familiarity

3.33%

Satisfaction and destination image

3.33%

Mixed bases

13.33%

Other unobservable tourism-specific bases (benefits sought, perceptions…)

6.67%

Other observable tourism-specific bases (length of stay, frequency…)

6.67%

Other unobservable general bases (lifestyles and psychographic variables) Other observable general bases (demographic, geographic and socio-economic variables) JOURNAL NAME

6.67% 4.44% 100.00%

Tourism Management

31.11%

International Journal of Tourism Research

16.67%

Journal of Travel Research

13.33%

Tourism Economics

7.78%

Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research

6.67%

Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research Other tourism journals indexed in 2011 JCR Social Sciences Edition® PUBLICATION YEAR

6.67% 17.77% 100.00%

2012

30.00%

2011

28.89%

2010

18.89%

2009

7.78%

2008

14.44%

Five of the empirical studies of those

attractions/nodes/points, time spent at

published

2012

each point, total time of the visit, length

on

of the itinerary, area visited, dominant

spatial-temporal patterns (Lee & Joh,

movement patterns, etc. (Lee & Joh,

2010; Tchetchik et al., 2009; Xia et al.,

2010; Tchetchik et al., 2009; Xia et al.,

2010; Xiao-Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012; Zakrisson

2010).

present

between a

2008

segmentation

and based

& Zillinger, 2012). In this group of works, which

were

principally

developed

by

The paper of Zakrisson and Zillinger

geographers, the emphasis is on the

(2012) presents the results from four

‘where’, but not on the ‘what’. Visitors are

case studies (two event studies and two

therefore segmented on the basis of

destination studies). In all four cases,

variables such as number of accessible

there are three mobility patterns (main

71

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN attraction

visitors,

specialists,

and

wanderers). These authors’ results also

visitors,

we

therefore

propose

the

following:

show that negative experiences are more often associated with mobility patterns

Proposition

1:

There

are

different

than positive experiences.

segments within the groups of both daytrippers and tourists in the historic city of

Xiao-Ting and Bi-Hu (2012) identify seven

Toledo based on the time spent on each

clusters of spatial-temporal behaviour

activity.

patterns in the Summer Palace, located in Beijing (China). These spatial-temporal

We also hope that it will be possible to

behaviour patterns can be determined by

profile each of the segments with

four factors: temporal behaviour factors

different

(total time at an attraction, plan time,

incorporating

entrance time, exit time, and total stay

covariates (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000):

time);

factors

previous visits (McKercher et al., 2012);

factors

tour group (LaMondia, 2010); and socio-

exhibitions,

demographic variables (age and place of

general sightseeing, admiring the flowers,

residence). Nevertheless, in this last

and

path

case it is important to stress that previous

characteristic factors (stay-points, length

studies have found the role of socio-

of space-time path, areas visited, and

demographic

stay time in a sequence). However, Xiao-

segmentation of cultural visitors to be

Ting and Bi-Hu (2012) do not measure

very limited (Galí & Donaire, 2006; Xiao-

the time that the visitors spend on each

Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012).

spatial

(districts); (walking,

behaviour

activity

choice

photography,

other

activities);

and

time

use

some

patterns

relevant

variables

by

external

in

the

activity, only whether or not they pursue a specific activity. Accordingly, the work of

these

authors

as

regards

3.2.3.

the

Time use, tourist experience and outcomes

discriminate power of activity choice factors is consequently virtually non-

Many tourism scholars have criticised

existent (e.g. in almost all the clusters the

certain

main activities were photography and

demographic or geographic variables) for

general sightseeing).

their failure to predict future behaviour.

segmentation

bases

(e.g.

Tkaczynski et al. (2009) emphasise the Bearing

aforementioned

importance of the segmentation bases

studies on individuals’ heterogeneity as

used in tourism being able to accurately

regards time use in their daily lives

predict

(Kamakura, 2009), along with the various

intentions to revisit and recommend the

behaviour patterns of a destination’s

destination).

72

in

mind

the

future

visitor One

behaviour

critical

aspect

(i.e. is,

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION therefore,

to

analyse

how

time

use

resource in the co-creation of value that

conditions the tourist experience and

contributes

outcome variables (spending, post-visit

involved

destination

destination (Prebensen, Vittersø, et al.,

image,

and

intentions

to

revisit and recommend it).

to in

how

visitors

interactions

become

with

the

2013). In the light of the discussion above, the way in which time is used at

Dellaert,

Ettema,

and

Lindh

(1998)

the

destination

determine

existence

framework to describe visitors’ sequential

experience,

choices

of

image, and intentions to revisit and

consist

of

components,

pre-travel

choice

which

differences post-visit

(e.g.

recommend

destination, lodging, travel mode, length

Uysal, 2013).

it

in

the

propose a constraint-based conceptual travel

of

will

tourist

destination

(Prebensen,

Woo,

&

of stay, etc.) and during-travel (e.g. attractions to visit, travel route to follow,

Given the findings on time use, tourist

day-to-day expenditure, etc.). Activity

experience and outcome variables, we

participation, time use and expenditure

propose the following:

during trip are usually interrelated (Zhang et al., 2012). This suggests that groups of

Proposition 2:

visitors with different time use will also

based on time use will be associated with

have

differences in expenditures, post-visit

different

spending

patterns.

Market

Nevertheless, the money spent on some

destination

image,

and

expenditure items is not expected to be

revisit and recommend it.

segmentation

intentions

to

conditioned by the way in which time is used at the destination, since it concerns

3.3.

Method

3.3.1.

Data collection and sample

pre-travel choices (e.g. transportation/ travel mode and lodging).

profile Visitors spend money, time, and effort during their tourist trip because they want

The data were collected by surveying 810

to do so. ‘That being so, tourist resources

visitors to Toledo in March and April

such as involvement, time, and effort are

2010. The historic city of Toledo has been

important inputs in our measures of

a UNESCO World Heritage City since 1986

overall

(Prebensen,

and it was one of the Spanish cities that

Vittersø, et al., 2013, p. 254). Visitors

was most visited in 2012, according to

experience the destination over time

data from the Collective Accommodation

during the course of a trip, encountering

Occupancy Survey (CAOS) compiled by

different

rhythms

the Spanish National Statistics Institute.

(Haldrup, 2004). Time is an important

A two-stage sampling strategy was used.

experience

places

at

value’

different

73

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN A quota sampling was first developed by

and hotels (64.19%) were the most

using the CAOS data for 2009, and the

frequent type of accommodation.

surveys were proportionally distributed between visitors residing both in Spain

3.3.2.

Instruments

and abroad. It was therefore possible to establish a quota of 30% as regards the

The questionnaire was structured in four

proportion of foreign visitors surveyed.

sections. The first section contained

Convenience sampling was then carried

questions concerning how the visit had

out in the principal tourist areas of the city

been planned and its characteristics,

in order to select the units that would be

while the last referred to the socio-

surveyed.

demographic data used to characterise the sample.

Of the 810 questionnaires collected, 11 were

eliminated

were

The second part of the questionnaire

incorrectly

adopted a diary approach in order to

completed. This resulted in 799 usable

record the primary activities performed

questionnaires. With regard

to the

by visitors within a day (from 10:00 am

profile of the visitors surveyed, 51.44%

to 10:00 am of the following day). This

were between 25 and 44 years of age,

approach was used to document visitor

and 53.57% were women. More than half

time allocation and has been used in

were married or living as a couple

recent studies related to tourism and

(58.20%), while 33.67% were single.

leisure (Vassiliadis et al., 2013; Xiao-Ting

With regard to their experience of the

& Bi-Hu, 2012). All time-diary primary

destination, 67.08% had not visited the

activities were grouped into 9 and 12

city in the last five years. Only 12.39%

major activity categories for day-

were visiting the city as part of a tour

trippers

group. More than 90% had planned their

Table 3.2 shows the non-parametric

trip, the average amount of information

Spearman correlations of the time spent

sources used to do this being 2.22. Day-

on each of these activities as regards both

trippers accounted for 61.20% of the

day-trippers

total sample (n = 489) and tourists

information provided indications of the

accounted for the remaining 38.80% (n =

degree

310). As regards the latter group, the

activities

average stay in the city was 2.26 nights,

complementary.

incomplete

74

or

because had

been

they

and

to

tourists,

and

tourists.

which were

respectively.

the

This various

substitutive

or

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 3.2. Non-parametric Spearman correlations between time allocated to each activity by day-trippers and tourists.

Activities A1. Walking about A2. Guided visits A3. Shopping A4. Visiting museums and monuments A5. Gathering information A6. Having drinks A7. Eating A8. Sport and health A9. Nightlife A10. Sleeping

A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

-0.35*

0.01

-0.14*

0.20*

-0.08

0.05

-0.31* -0.24*

0.00

-0.23*

-0.04

0.00

0.07

-0.01

-0.11

-0.21*

-0.04

0.10

-0.11

-0.06

-0.04

0.04

0.11

-0.08

-0.12*

-0.27*

0.12*

0.10

0.05

0.05

-0.20*

-0.11*

0.06

-0.15*

-0.14*

0.12*

0.04

-0.03

0.20*

0.10* 0.16*

A6

A7

A8

-0.14*

n.a.

n.a

n.a.

-0.12*

0.09*

n.a.

n.a

n.a.

0.12*

-0.16*

0.15*

0.12*

n.a.

n.a

n.a.

0.08

-0.32*

-0.06

0.10*

n.a.

n.a

n.a.

0.04

-0.55*

0.04

0.12*

n.a.

n.a

n.a.

0.12*

-0.34*

0.21*

n.a.

n.a

n.a.

0.02

-0.14*

n.a.

n.a

n.a.

0.21*

-0.33*

n.a

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

-0.08

0.22*

A9

0.09

-0.04

0.17*

-0.01

0.12*

A10

A11

A12

-0.02

-0.10

-0.23*

-0.19*

0.12*

0.00

0.01

-0.16*

-0.24*

A11. Travelling

-0.10

-0.07

-0.17*

-0.24*

0.04

-0.23*

-0.41*

-0.02

-0.13*

-0.35*

A12. Rest of time (outside/at the destination)

0.03

-0.03

0.06

-0.10

0.25*

-0.04

-0.01

-0.07

-0.12*

0.17*

-0.25*

n.a.

n.a. -0.52*

-0.06

Notes: Values above the diagonal: day-trippers; Values below the diagonal: tourists; n.a.: not applicable; *p < 0.05.

The third section contained information

(2007), Lam and Hsu (2006), and were

about the spending that had taken place

also used by Ramkissoon and Uysal

on eight separate items (seven in the case

(2011). All items were measured with an

of the day-trippers), the visitors’ image of

11-point

the destination after visiting it, and

strongly disagree (0) to strongly agree

intentions to revisit and recommend it.

(10). A confirmatory factor analysis

Spending per person per day was

was employed and produced satisfactory

calculated using the data over the size of

results

the trip group and the duration of the trip.

acceptable

This was for later analysis. Destination

(Schumacker & Lomax, 2010) (Table

image was measured with two items also

3.3). Once completed, the items used to

used by García, Gómez, and Molina

measure each of these three concepts

(2012). The measurement scales for the

were

intentions to revisit and recommend

measures derived were standardised (by

were slightly modified versions of items

subtracting the mean and dividing by its

adopted from Alén, Rodríguez, and Fraiz

standard deviation).

Likert

scale,

indicating

a

reliability

added,

and

ranging

good

fit,

and

the

from

and

validity

aggregated

75

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 3.3. Results from confirmatory factor analysis: destination image, and intentions to revisit and recommend it.

Concept/Item

Loading

α

CR

AVE

Square correlation IMA

REV

REC

DESTINATION IMAGE (IMA) IMA1. The image that I have of Toledo is as good as or even better than that of 0.56* 0.69 0.74 0.60 1.00 0.20 0.39 other similar destinations IMA2. My overall image of Toledo is very 0.94* positive INTENTION TO REVISIT (REV) REV1. I would like to visit Toledo within 0.40* 0.57 0.70 0.58 0.20 1.00 0.31 the next 12 months REV2. If I can, I have the intention of 1.00* coming back to Toledo in the future INTENTION TO RECOMMEND (REC) REC1. I would encourage my family and 0.89* friends to visit Toledo 0.93 0.93 0.82 0.39 0.31 1.00 REC2. I would recommend Toledo to 0.91* anyone that asks me REC3. I would give good references of 0.93* Toledo to others Goodness of fit summary: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square (df = 11) = 46.73 (p < 0.01); Bentler-Bonett normed fit index (BBNFI) = 0.98; Bentler-Bonett non-normed fit index (BBNNFI) = 0.97; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.98; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.98; McDonald's fit index (MFI) = 0.98; root mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.06. Notes: α: Cronbach’s alpha; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted; *p < 0.05.

3.3.3.

Data analysis

Akaike

information

criterion

(AIC),

Bayesian information criterion (BIC) or Figure

3.1

shows

the

research

consistent Akaike information criterion

propositions proposed in this work, along

(CAIC) (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000), and

with the data analyses carried out and the

the LCCA is therefore particularly useful

software packages used.

when the number of clusters is unknown a priori, as is the case in this research.

The first proposition was tested by applying

latent

class

analysis

a

As is shown in Figure 3.1, the proposed

segmentation method, also referred to as

model included a series of indicators

latent class cluster analysis (LCCA) or

(time spent by day-trippers and tourists

mixture-model

on

clustering

Magidson,

2002).

significant

advantages

(Vermunt LCCA

&

a

series

of

activities)

and

also

has

incorporated some relevant covariates

other

(previous visits in the last five years, tour

segmentation procedures (Oppewal et al.,

group, age, and place of residence) with

2010). However, the main reason for

which to predict class membership. The

choosing the LCCA was that the selection

latent class cluster model for mixed

of a suitable number of clusters/segments

indicators

is based on statistical criteria, such as

variables) with covariates is formally

76

The

as

over

(continuous

and

ordinal

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION defined as Equation (1) (Vermunt &

vector of indicators; Zi is the vector of

Magidson, 2002).

covariates; θ denotes the vector of all unknown parameters to be estimated;

f Yi Zi ,   

   f y J

K

k 1

k zi

j 1

k

ij

 jk



(1)

and fk(yij|θjk) is the conditional density function. In order to reduce the number

Where:

of

i is an index to denote a particular case

belonging to cluster k given covariate

(each

values zi,

day-tripper

or

tourist

in

the

parameters,

the

probability

of

πk|zi, will generally be restricted

sample); K is the number of clusters and

by a multinomial logit model. Full details

k is a particular cluster; J denotes the

of the parameter estimation model

total number of indicators and j denotes a

with Latent Gold® 4.5 can be found in

particular indicator; Yi represents the

Vermunt and Magidson (2002, 2005b).

Figure 3.1. Research propositions, analysis procedures, and software packages.

Indicators (time use)  

Day-trippers (n = 489): 9 activities Tourists (n = 310): 12 activities

Outcome variables 

Number of clusters of daytrippers/tourists

 

Covariates    

Previous visits in the last five years Tour group Age Place of residence



Spending per person per day (€): 7 and 8 spending items for day-trippers and tourists, respectively Destination image (M = 0, SD = 1) Intention to revisit (M = 0, SD = 1) Intention to recommend (M = 0, SD = 1)

Proposition 1. Market segmentation based on time use

Proposition 2. Differences in outcome variables

Latent class cluster analysis (Latent Gold® 4.5)

One-way analysis of variance/Welch test (IBM® SPSS® Statistics 19.0)

Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation.

77

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN With regard to the second proposition,

of chance resulting from a local solution,

the

following the recommendation of Oppewal

differences

in

outcome

variables

among the identified clusters of day-

et al. (2010).

trippers and tourists were studied by: Once the number of clusters had been (1)

The

one-way

analysis

of

established (four), the significance of

variance (ANOVA) procedure

the indicators and covariates was

when the homogeneous variance

evaluated. A significant p-value (i.e. p <

assumption was correct; or

0.05) associated with the robust Wald statistic

(2)

The

Welch

test

when

the

variances were heterogeneous.

means

that

the

indicator

discriminates between the clusters in a statistically significant way (Vermunt & Magidson, 2005a). It is also possible to

3.4.

Results

profile

the

evaluating 3.4.1.

clusters the

by

analogously

usefulness

of

the

Market segmentation based

covariates. Tables 3.5 and 3.6 show the

on time use

estimated parameters for the four clusters of day-trippers and tourists,

The first proposition was tested by

respectively.

carrying out two LCCAs of day-trippers and visitors. The first step in the LCCA is

First, the p-value associated with the

the selection of the best number of

robust Wald statistic was less than 0.05

clusters/segments. Five models were

for

considered, each of which incorporated

displayed in Table 3.5, indicating that

between one (sample homogeneity) and

these made a significant contribution

five clusters. Table 3.4 shows a summary

towards discriminating between the four

of the statistics for the latent class cluster

clusters of day-trippers. With regard to

models of day-trippers and tourists. The

the indicator measuring the time spent

results indicate that there were four

during the day having a drink, sitting in

groups

bars,

of

day-trippers

and

tourists

eight

out

etc.,

its

of

nine

p-value

indicators

was

quasi-

according to the CAIC. A model with a

significant (i.e. p < 0.1), signifying that

lower CAIC value is preferred to a model

there was empirical support for the

with a higher CAIC value (Wedel &

market segmentation of day-trippers

Kamakura, 2000). Furthermore, in order

based on time use (proposition 1).

to

avoid

sub-optimal

solutions,

we

estimated each model 10 times with

Two out of four covariates introduced in

different random start values to ensure

the

that the results were not the consequence

(previous visits in the last five years and

78

analyses

to

profile

the

clusters

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION age) were not significant (p = 0.33, and

destination), had a p-value that was

p = 0.11, respectively). This means that

greater than 0.05, signifying that the

all

values

four

clusters

exhibited

similar

of

these

indicators

were

not

frequency distributions in relation to the

significantly different between clusters.

previous experience with the destination

There was also empirical support for

and the day-trippers’ ages.

the market segmentation of tourists based on the time dedicated to pursuing

Second, 10 out of 12 indicators had a

different activities (proposition 1).

significance level associated with the robust Wald statistic that was lower than

With regard to the covariates, significant

0.05, indicating that the time allocation in

effects were observed for previous visits

these activities does allow the tourists to

in the last five years and tour group. The

be segmented in four clusters (Table

remaining covariates (age and place of

3.6).

residence) did not significantly affect

Only

two

indicators,

gathering

information and rest of time (at the

cluster membership (p > 0.05).

Table 3.4. Statistics for the latent class cluster models of day-trippers and tourists.

Kind of visitors/Model

Log-likelihood (LL)

CAIC(LL)

Number of parameters

Classification errors

DAY-TRIPPERS One cluster

-6221.94

12,774.72

46

0.00

Two clusters

-5906.78

12,331.41

72

0.05

Three clusters

-5682.43

12,069.71

98

0.04

Four clusters*

-5544.82

11,981.50

124

0.07

Five clusters

-5505.81

12,090.48

150

0.08

One cluster

-5085.15

10,331.97

24

0.00

Two clusters

-3852.75

8096.21

58

0.00

Three clusters

-3534.08

7687.92

92

0.00

Four clusters*

-3269.59

7388.00

126

0.00

Five clusters

-3166.99

7411.83

160

0.01

TOURISTS

Notes: CAIC: consistent Akaike information criterion; *Best model according to CAIC.

79

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 3.5. Estimated parameters for the four clusters of day-trippers.

Cluster 1. Brief daytrippers and shoppers

Variable

Cluster 2. Cultural day-trippers

Cluster 3. Day-trippers who are ‘wanderers’

Cluster 4. Hyperactive and guided day-trippers

Robust Wald statistic

p

INDICATOR Walking about

-0.25

0.92

0.03

-0.70

34.32

0.00

Guided visits

-0.13

-0.23

-0.06

0.42

21.56

0.00

Shopping

0.23

0.10

-0.74

0.31

999.93

0.00

-0.95

0.69

-0.41

0.67

97.78

0.00

-1.20

1.41

-0.87

0.66

32.61

0.00

Having drinks

-0.04

-0.11

-0.07

0.22

6.55

0.09

Eating

-0.17

-0.08

-0.17

0.42

50.25

0.00

Travelling

-0.71

-0.47

-0.48

1.66

57.46

0.00

Rest of time (outside the destination)

2.16

-1.03

2.06

-3.19

516.18

0.00

6.91

0.33

17.18

0.00

21.73

0.11

26.73

0.00

Visiting museums and monuments Gathering information

COVARIATE Previous visits in the last five years None

0.07

0.02

0.04

-0.12

One time

-0.12

0.12

-0.34

0.34

Two or more times

0.05

-0.14

0.31

-0.22

Tour group Yes

-0.21

-0.41

-0.07

0.68

No

0.21

0.41

0.07

-0.68

Age Under 25

0.18

0.19

-0.02

-0.34

25-34

0.27

-0.26

0.46

-0.47

35-44

-0.20

0.04

-0.05

0.20

45-54

-0.55

0.34

-0.12

0.34

55-64

-0.04

-0.09

-0.23

0.37

Over 64

0.35

-0.21

-0.04

-0.10

Place of residence

80

Spain

-0.29

-0.62

-0.05

0.96

Other country

0.29

0.62

0.05

-0.96

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 3.6. Estimated parameters for the four clusters of tourists.

Cluster A. Tourists who are ‘wanderers’

Variable

Cluster B. Relaxed and cultural tourists

Cluster C. Guided tourists

Cluster D. Hyperactive and nocturnal tourists

Robust Wald statistic

p

INDICATOR Walking about

0.87

0.52

-0.22

-1.17

68.11

0.00

Guided visits

-0.66

-0.66

1.05

0.27

166.16

0.00

Shopping

-0.25

0.14

0.04

0.06

16.54

0.00

-0.05

0.21

-0.12

-0.04

415.39

0.00

0.15

-0.38

0.16

0.07

2.10

0.55

Having drinks

-0.18

0.10

-0.10

0.17

9.80

0.02

Eating

-0.18

0.18

0.05

-0.06

8.26

0.04

Sport and health

-0.29

-0.29

-0.29

0.86

68.56

0.00

Nightlife

-0.34

0.25

-0.63

0.72

26.61

0.00

Sleeping

0.49

0.35

-0.11

-0.74

19.27

0.00

Travelling

0.39

-0.43

0.08

-0.03

8.36

0.04

Rest of time (at the destination)

0.03

0.01

0.07

-0.11

6.21

0.10

14.42

0.03

9.78

0.02

5.76

0.98

3.75

0.29

Visiting museums and monuments Gathering information

COVARIATE Previous visits in the last five years None

0.25

-0.47

0.34

-0.12

One time

0.02

0.11

0.00

-0.13

Two or more times

-0.27

0.37

-0.34

0.24

Tour group Yes

-0.20

-0.80

0.45

0.55

No

0.20

0.80

-0.45

-0.55

Age Under 25

-0.01

0.06

-0.17

0.12

25-34

0.12

0.09

-0.25

0.04

35-44

0.26

0.01

0.26

-0.54

45-54

-0.04

0.06

-0.02

0.00

55-64

-0.09

0.14

0.10

-0.15

Over 64

-0.23

-0.37

0.07

0.52

Place of residence Spain

-0.09

-0.16

-0.20

0.46

Other country

0.09

0.16

0.20

-0.46

81

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 3.7. Profiles of clusters of day-trippers: indicators and significant covariates.

Cluster 1. Brief day-trippers and shoppers (31.13%)

Variable

Cluster 2. Cultural daytrippers (29.50%)

Cluster 3. Daytrippers who are ‘wanderers’ (22.10%)

Cluster 4. Hyperactive and guided day-trippers (17.26%)

Total (Daytrippers)

INDICATOR (HOURS) Walking about

3.76

4.93

4.04

3.31

4.09

Guided visits

0.31

0.25

0.35

1.04

0.43

Shopping

0.98

0.44

0.00

1.05

0.62

1.20

3.33

1.73

2.82

2.22

0.22

0.44

0.24

0.36

0.31

Having drinks

0.70

0.63

0.68

0.96

0.72

Eating

1.13

1.23

1.13

1.72

1.26

Travelling

1.08

1.32

1.31

3.45

1.61

Rest of time (outside the destination)

14.63

11.43

14.52

9.28

12.74

Total

24.00

24.00

24.00

24.00

24.00

Visiting museums and monuments Gathering information

COVARIATE Tour group Yes

13.05%

9.17%

11.72%

37.02%

15.75%

No

86.95%

90.83%

88.28%

62.98%

84.25%

Spain

60.17%

43.47%

71.61%

93.96%

63.60%

Other country

39.83%

56.53%

28.39%

6.04%

36.40%

Place of residence

Table 3.7 shows the profiles of the

characteristics of each of the clusters

clusters

are the following:

of

day-trippers

obtained

(number of hours dedicated to each activity and frequency distribution of

Cluster

covariates).

non-significant

shoppers (DT1). This contains 31.13%

covariates were omitted. The first row

of the sample of day-trippers. These

shows the name assigned to each cluster,

people spend little time pursuing activities

in addition to its relative size. Shaded

at the destination (they spend almost 15

cells indicate the most relevant features

hours outside the city and more than an

in

hour

82

each

The

cluster.

The

main

1.

Brief

travelling).

day-trippers

However,

they

and

are,

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION together with day-tripper Cluster 4, the

characteristics of each of the clusters

people who spend most time shopping

are the following:

(almost an hour). Cluster Cluster

2.

Cultural

A.

Tourists

who

are

day-trippers

‘wanderers’ (TA). This first segment is

(DT2). This group represents 29.50% of

the most numerous, representing 34.97%

the sample. The most salient feature is

of tourists in the historic city of Toledo.

that they spend more than three hours

These people, together with the tourists

visiting museums and monuments and

in Cluster B, are those who spend most

almost five hours strolling around the

time walking around the city and sleeping

streets in the historic city. This cluster contains the highest percentage of those

Cluster

B.

Relaxed

day-trippers who do not visit the city with

tourists

(TB).

a tour group (90.83%) and who live

27.08% of the tourist sample. These

abroad (56.53%).

people have a high propensity towards

This

and

cultural

cluster

contains

carrying out activities linked with culture Cluster

3.

Day-trippers

who

are

(they visit museums and the interiors of

‘wanderers’ (DT3). This group has a

monuments for more than three hours

relative size of 22.10%. Their visit to the

per day), and relaxation (having a drink,

city is short, and they spend most of their

eating and sleeping). They are also

time pursuing

do not

tourists with a wide previous experience

generate an income for the destination

of the destination, since 42.88% of them

(such as, for example, strolling around).

had already visited the destination in the

activities that

last five years. Cluster 4. Hyperactive and guided day-trippers (DT4). 17.26% are day-

Cluster C. Guided tourists (TC). The

trippers who are characterized by the fact

relative size of this group is 26.35%. The

that they carry out a wide range of

tourists

activities. They are also those who spend

differentiated from the rest in that they

most time on guided visits, having a drink

spend almost two hours on guided tours.

and eating. This is the cluster with a

They are also tourists with little previous

higher proportion of those day-trippers on

experience of the destination.

in

this

cluster

can

be

organised trips and who live in Spain (93.96%).

Cluster D. Hyperactive and nocturnal tourists (TD). The remaining 11.60%

Table 3.8 shows the name assigned to

are tourists with a high predilection for

each cluster of tourists, in addition to its

spending time pursuing activities linked to

relative

the city’s nightlife, sports and health.

size

and

profile.

The

main

83

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 3.8. Profiles of clusters of tourists: indicators and significant covariates.

Cluster A. Tourists who are ‘wanderers’ (34.97%)

Variable

Cluster B. Relaxed and cultural tourists (27.08%)

Cluster C. Guided tourists (26.35%)

Cluster D. Hyperactive and nocturnal tourists (11.60%)

Total (Tourists)

INDICATOR (HOURS) Walking about

4.76

4.40

3.67

2.72

4.14

Guided visits

0.00

0.00

1.71

0.93

0.56

Shopping

0.72

1.11

1.01

1.03

0.94

2.86

3.13

2.80

2.87

2.92

0.53

0.00

0.54

0.45

0.38

Having drinks

0.93

1.20

1.01

1.28

1.06

Eating

1.96

2.32

2.18

2.08

2.13

Sport and health

0.00

0.00

0.00

1.14

0.13

Nightlife

0.91

1.50

0.63

1.97

1.12

Sleeping

8.46

8.32

7.86

7.23

8.12

Travelling

2.28

1.46

1.97

1.86

1.92

Rest of time (at the destination)

0.60

0.57

0.63

0.45

0.58

24.00

24.00

24.00

24.00

24.00

78.83%

57.12%

80.44%

66.36%

71.94%

One time

14.72%

23.82%

14.68%

19.62%

17.74%

Two or more times

6.45%

19.06%

4.88%

14.01%

10.32%

Yes

3.67%

1.18%

14.69%

13.99%

No

96.33%

98.82%

85.31%

86.01%

Visiting museums and monuments Gathering information

Total COVARIATE Previous visits in the last five years None

Tour group

3.4.2.

Differences

in

outcome

variables

7.10% 92.90%

4 categories of day-trippers and tourists (as many as the amount of clusters identified). Each visitor in the sample was

We finally contrasted proposition 2. The

therefore assigned to a group according

cluster

saved

to the probability of their having a specific

beforehand as a new variable containing

time use pattern. Their influence on

84

membership

was

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION spending, post-visit destination image,

recommend

the

destination.

If

the

and intentions to recommend and revisit

greatest amount of money spent and

are analysed below. This analysis is a key

intentions to recommend are considered,

aspect in the evaluation of time use as a

then the brief day-trippers and shoppers

segmentation criterion.

(DT1) (70.83 € per person per day, 0.11 standard deviations over the mean), and

The analysis presented in Table 3.9

the cultural day-trippers (DT2) (73.44 €

shows that the cluster membership of the

per

day-trippers, and therefore the ways of

deviations over the mean) were the

allocating their time whilst visiting the

clusters

city, does influence in three of the

destination.

seven spending items considered (food

differences were found as regards the

bought in stores, tickets for museums,

destination image after the visit and

exhibitions and similar, and shopping for

intentions to revisit it in the future in the

local crafts) and their intentions to

various clusters identified.

person of

per

day,

most

0.06

interest

However,

no

standard to

the

significant

Table 3.9. Differences in outcome variables between clusters of day-trippers.

Variable SPENDING PER PERSON PER DAY (€) Bars and restaurants Food bought in stores Tickets for museums, exhibitions and similar Hiring guides Shopping for local crafts Transportation Other expenses DESTINATION IMAGE INTENTION TO REVISIT INTENTION TO RECOMMEND

M DT1 (SD)

M DT2 (SD)

70.83 73.44 (123.21) (111.84)

M DT3 (SD)

M DT4 (SD)

46.17 (37.14)

57.74 (42.32)

19.72 (36.59) 2.72 (5.76)

19.10 (15.16) 3.14 (6.85)

15.77 (14.62) 1.52 (3.56)

19.05 (17.41) 3.40 (6.86)

4.52 (10.57)

10.27 (15.05)

5.56 (7.72)

6.47 (7.63)

2.10 (16.65) 18.03 (64.15) 20.77 (42.91) 2.93 (7.89) -0.09 (1.07) 0.02 (1.06) 0.11 (0.89)

2.84 (10.86) 14.09 (33.57) 22.65 (64.56) 1.30 (8.21) 0.14 (0.94) -0.15 (1.05) 0.06 (0.87)

1.85 (5.37) 2.20 (10.97) 16.32 (18.76) 2.94 (10.48) -0.09 (1.09) 0.07 (1.02) 0.03 (1.05)

1.56 (4.55) 10.39 (18.72) 15.14 (19.07) 1.91 (3.66) 0.05 (0.81) 0.11 (0.72) -0.34 (1.25)

Levene test

ANOVA/ Welch test F

p

Post hoc tests (p < 0.1)

F

p

2.19

0.09

1.32a

0.27

2.89

0.04

3.44a

0.02 DT2 > DT3

2.78

0.04

4.94a

DT2 > 0.00 DT1, DT3, DT4

0.93

0.43

0.27

0.85

6.35

0.00

10.18a

0.00

1.20

0.31

0.75

0.52

3.31

0.02

1.33a

0.27

3.52

0.02

1.73a

0.16

6.27

0.00

1.75a

0.16

9.59

0.00

2.81a

0.04

DT1, DT2, DT4 > DT3

DT1, DT2 > DT4

Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation; DT1: Cluster 1. Brief day-trippers and shoppers; DT2: Cluster 2. Cultural day-trippers; DT3: Cluster 3. Day-trippers who are ‘wanderers’; DT4: Cluster 4. Hyperactive and guided day-trippers; aAsymptotically F distributed.

85

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN With regard to the tourists (Table

(80.17 € per person per day). However, it

3.10),

was more probable that the hyperactive

differences

were

found

both

among the clusters identified in four of

and

the eight spending items (bars and

standard

restaurants,

museums,

would revisit the destination than the

exhibitions and similar, hiring guides, and

clusters containing ‘wanderers’ (TA) and

shopping for local crafts) and in the

guided tourists (TC), whilst the relaxed

intention to recommend and revisit.

and cultural tourists (TB) (0.15 standard

If spending is considered, then the most

deviations over the mean) would be more

attractive cluster for the destination is

likely to make positive recommendations

that denominated as guided tourists (TC)

to others than the guided tourists (TC).

tickets

for

nocturnal

tourists

deviations

over

(TD)

(0.52

the

mean)

Table 3.10. Differences in outcome variables between clusters of tourists.

Variable SPENDING PER PERSON PER DAY (€) Bars and restaurants Food bought in stores Tickets for museums, exhibitions and similar Hiring guides Shopping for local crafts Transportation Lodging Other expenses DESTINATION IMAGE INTENTION TO REVISIT INTENTION TO RECOMMEND

M TA (SD)

M TB (SD)

M TC (SD)

M TD (SD)

57.58 (34.54)

69.05 (54.95)

80.17 (136.56)

74.83 (54.65)

11.87 (10.08) 1.78 (3.06)

18.09 (13.20) 2.08 (3.69)

14.74 (11.62) 3.39 (5.44)

19.37 (21.67) 1.94 (3.44)

3.31 (2.90)

4.15 (4.07)

5.20 (5.48)

5.70 (7.31)

0.00 (0.00) 2.42 (3.01) 12.82 (16.99) 23.01 (17.36) 2.37 (7.54) 0.03 (1.03) -0.15 (0.98) 0.04 (1.01)

0.00 (0.00) 3.97 (6.73) 17.73 (39.23) 20.71 (22.63) 2.32 (5.00) -0.12 (1.00) 0.07 (1.05) 0.15 (0.96)

3.02 (4.84) 6.35 (8.50) 23.41 (126.77) 20.94 (18.97) 3.12 (8.22) -0.01 (0.94) -0.09 (0.99) -0.26 (1.00)

4.82 (12.21) 5.32 (7.91) 9.77 (10.02) 21.86 (20.06) 6.05 (19.71) 0.23 (1.03) 0.52 (0.82) 0.13 (0.98)

Levene test F

p

ANOVA/ Welch test F

p

Post hoc tests (p < 0.1)

7.94

0.00

5.03a

0.00

TB > TA

6.88

0.00

1.94a

0.13

9.48

0.00

3.75a

0.01

TC > TA

37.46

0.00

14.67b

0.00

TC > TA, TB; TD > TA, TB

9.43

0.00

7.08a

0.00

TC > TA

2.14

0.09

1.46a

0.23

0.75

0.52

0.28

0.84

3.13

0.03

0.57a

0.64

0.10

0.96

1.07

0.36

1.58

0.19

4.43

0.01

TD > TA, TC

0.29

0.83

2.73

0.04

TB > TC

Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation; TA: Cluster A. Tourists who are ‘wanderers’; TB: Cluster B. Relaxed and cultural tourists; TC: Cluster C. Guided tourists; TD: Cluster D. Hyperactive and nocturnal tourists; Asymptotically F distributed; bANOVA, Welch test cannot be performed because at least one group has zero

a

variance.

86

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION 3.5.

Discussion and conclusions

empirical

link

between

individuals’

internal priorities and their behaviour The objective of this study has been to

(Anderson et al., 1992). Since it is an

empirically evaluate the utility of time use

observable

as a segmentation criterion of the visitors

time use function is very good or good in

to the historic city of Toledo. The results

terms

have allowed us to obtain four segments

accessibility,

of day-trippers (brief day-trippers and

responsiveness

shoppers, cultural

2000).

day-trippers, those

tourism-specific

of

identifiability,

base,

substantiality,

stability,

Its

(Wedel principal

the

&

and Kamakura,

weakness

is

who are ‘wanderers’, and hyperactive and

actionability. However, bearing in mind

guided

to

that unobservable tourism-specific bases

another four for tourists (‘wanderers’,

stand out because of their actionability, it

relaxed

might

day-trippers), and

cultural

in

addition

tourists,

guided

be

possible

to

increase

the

tourists, and hyperactive and nocturnal

effectiveness and profitability of tourism

tourists). We also discovered that the

market segmentation based on time by,

various segments identified according to

for

the time spent pursuing each activity can

presented in this research (time use) with

be

other subjective measures related to time

differentiated

spending

items

as

regards:

and

certain

intentions

example, combining the criterion

to

attitudes (Chetthamrongchai & Davies,

recommend the destination, in the case of

2000): time orientation, time pressure,

both day-trippers and tourists; and the

and succession during the touristic visit.

intentions to revisit, in the case of tourists.

The study presented herein may also have

practical

implications

for

From the academic point of view, after

Destination Management Organisations

carrying out a detailed analysis of the

(DMOs)

empirical studies on tourism that have

develop their activities at the destination.

been published, it was concluded that

Both the size and profile of the groups

activities or motivations have been widely

identified, and the differences between

used as segmentation bases. However,

the outcome variables would therefore

this research takes one step further in

provide

that it proposes a segmentation based on

configuring the activities on offer in the

the measurement of the time dedicated to

destination.

each

activity.

This

chapter

and

tourism companies that

useful

information

when

therefore

situates the time use at the destination as

More

specifically,

a valuable segmentation criterion that will

example, that one of the tourist groups

be useful to tourism researchers since it

that

establishes a more direct conceptual and

denominated as ‘wanderers’ (TA), who

is

relatively

it

highlights, large

is

for that

87

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN spend

a

lot

pursuing

In spite of the interest value of this study,

activities that do not generate income for

it is necessary to bear in mind a series of

the

limitations.

city.

of

their

However,

time

the

other

three

segments of tourists (who are more interesting in terms of spending or their

Firstly, it is focused solely on the historic

intentions to revisit and recommend) are

city

smaller. This indicates the need to reflect

information concerning time use in other

upon

places (e.g. sun and beach, nature, or

the

destination’s

promotion

of

Toledo.

The

destinations)

collection

strategies, since it is principally attracting

urban

would

a group of tourists of little actual value

valuable for further research.

be

of

very

(spending) and future for the destination (revisiting and recommendation). It has

Secondly, the data concerning time use

further been concluded that both the

have been obtained by using a diary, as

hyperactive

day-trippers

has occurred in other recent studies such

(DT4), and the guided tourists (TC) who

as that of Vassiliadis et al. (2013).

spend most of their time on guided visits,

Although the various methods with which

are

to obtain information on time use that are

those

and

who

guided

are

least

likely

to

recommend the destination. This may be

available

(observation,

owing to the fact that they do not have

questionnaires

free control over part of their time.

System (GPS) technology, among others)

Whatever the case may be, these findings

have their advantages and disadvantages

indicate that if the destination’s future

(Xiao-Ting & Bi-Hu, 2012), in future

competitive position is to be improved,

studies,

then it is not appropriate to promote the

obtained by combining Global Positioning

use of guided visits to excess.

System

this (GPS)

and

Global

diaries, Positioning

information technology

could with

be a

questionnaire (Tchetchik et al., 2009). Finally, the cultural day-trippers (DT2), and the relaxed and cultural tourists (TB)

Thirdly, it would be interesting to analyse

are those who are of most interest to the

how the differences in time use influence

destination, at least as regards their

other variables that have not been

intentions to recommend it. It might

considered in this research, such as

therefore be possible to set up initiatives

satisfaction

such as a single entrance ticket for the

emotions (Prebensen, Woo, et al., 2013;

city’s monuments and museums, since

Zakrisson & Zillinger, 2012).

or

positive

and

negative

this would encourage visitors to spend more time pursuing this type of activities,

Lastly, the study required visitors to

which

indicate how much time they spent

might

make

them

feel

more

inclined to recommend the destination.

88

pursuing the principal activities at each

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION moment. In future works it will be necessary to bear in mind that visitors may pursue various activities at the same time (Vassiliadis et al., 2013) and to analyse whether a multi-tasking style is related to greater stress or anxiety during the visit to the destination. Despite

these

segmentation

limitations, proposed

the

in

this

research could be useful in other areas, such as shopping centres. Time is a critical variable for the managers of this type of establishments, since the longer that people stay, the more likely it is

that

they

will

spend

money.

Segmenting visitors to shopping centres according

to

the

amount

of

time

dedicated to each activity may therefore permit the marketing strategies applied in this area to be improved (García, Molina, & Gómez, 2012).

89

CHAPTER 4.

EXPLORING THE ROLE OF TIME

PERSPECTIVE

LEISURE CHOICES

IN

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION CHAPTER 4. EXPLORING THE ROLE OF

recently concluded that personality plays

TIME

a key role in predicting why people choose

PERSPECTIVE

IN

LEISURE

CHOICES

to pursue leisure activities. However, most leisure studies do not account for the way in which individuals view time and how this affects leisure choices

4.1.

Introduction

(Shores & Scott, 2007).

The centrality of time orientation or

Urry (1994) connects time and leisure as

time perspective (TP), which is used to

a means to explain social identity and

explain general attitudes towards life

society’s evolution. He suggests that

and the reasons for human behaviour,

society has gone from being clock-time

has

psychology

oriented in which people are focused on

(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999; Zimbardo,

the future and long-term planning, and

Keough, & Boyd, 1997), and consumer

the leisure is organised and regulated by

behaviour (Bergadaà, 1990; Davies &

the clock, to the current society in which

Omer, 1996).

both the glacial and the instantaneous

been

recognised

in

sense of time co-exist. Those people with The concept of TP is based on the idea

a glacial sense of time are oriented

that people place emphasis on the past,

towards the past, and they feel the weight

present or future (Bergadaà, 1990). The

of

relative

instantaneous sense of time are highly

significance

that

individuals

history,

while

those

oriented

whether people prefer to look back at

present context that may be, for example,

events and accomplishments, live in the

associated with independent travellers.

here

now,

whatever

may

or

look

unfold’

turmoil

an

attach to each time frame ‘indicates

and

towards the

with

of the

forward

to

Shores and Scott (2007) show that TP has

(Cotte

&

a

stronger

relationship

leisure

Ratneshwar, 2003, p. 560). TP is widely

benefits

regarded as an important aspect of

variables. Philipp (1992) concludes that

overall personality (Davies & Omer,

future-oriented people appear to seek

1996; Fraisse, 1963; Shores, 2005) and

many specific leisure activities more

individuals’

been

frequently than past-oriented or present-

demonstrated to have more influence on

oriented people. It can thus be stated that

their behaviour as regards leisure in

there are signs that different TPs might

comparison

influence consumers’ leisure preferences

personalities

to

have

other

settings

socio-demographic

(Brandstätter, 1994; Diener, Larsen, &

(Cotte

Emmons,

1992; Shores, 2005; Shores & Scott,

Larsen,

1984; 1986).

Emmons, Barnett

Diener,

(2013)

&

has

&

than

with

Ratneshwar,

2003;

Philipp,

2007).

93

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Furthermore, with the exception of some

(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Like Barnett

studies in the field of positive psychology,

(2013), leisure time and free time are

most research has focused on analysing

considered interchangeable terms in the

biased TPs without studying a balanced

present study. The proximity of both

time perspective (BTP). People with a

terms is reflected by Shores (2005, p. 2)

BTP have the ability to be flexible in

who uses Mannell and Kleiber’s (1997)

shifting from one TP to another; they are

conception to describe leisure ‘as an

supposed to be adaptive to the past,

activity chosen with relative freedom

present, and future (Boniwell & Zimbardo,

usually undertaken during free time with

2004). A BTP has been associated with

the potential to provide a feeling of joy,

subjective

control or mastery’.

previous

well-being. studies

However,

have

no

investigated

differences in leisure choices between BTP

The

rest

of

the

fourth

chapter

is

and non-BTP groups.

organised as follows. The next section provides a brief overview of some related

Despite findings that TP may be a key

research

aspect in leisure choices, most research

presents the data and methodology used.

linking both aspects has emerged from

The empirical results are presented in the

qualitative studies or small samples

third

sizes

limitations

(Shores

&

Scott,

2007).

The

growing research related to TPs and

works.

section. and

The

second

Concluding future

section

remarks,

research

are

addressed in the last section.

having a BTP (Sircova et al., 2014; Wiberg, Sircova, Wiberg, & Carelli, 2012)

4.2.

Literature review

4.2.1.

Time perspective

and leisure (Cotte & Ratneshwar, 2003), has not stimulated their joint analysis, leading to an important research gap. The effective operationalization of TP The

to

requires an adequate conceptualisation

contribute to the research on leisure and

of this construct. Due to its complexity,

consumer behaviour by exploring the

different definitions have been used in the

role of five TPs (past-negative, past-

literature (Díaz-Morales, 2006). The lack

positive,

present-

of a precise definition of TP has

hedonistic, and future) and having a

stimulated the development of multiple

BTP on the amount of free time available,

scales with a single temporal category

leisure

leisure

(Bond & Feather, 1988; Joireman et al.,

activities. The five TPs were measured by

2012; Strathman, Gleicher, Boninger, &

an adaptation of the Zimbardo Time

Edwuards,

Perspective

Zaleski, 1996; Zuckerman, Eysenck, &

94

purpose

of

this

study

present-fatalistic,

benefits

sought

and

Inventory

is

(ZTPI)

1994;

Wohlford,

1966;

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Eysenck, 1978) or two different time

construct, and provides a definition of TP

frames (Rappaport, 1990; Usunier &

as ‘a cognitive operation that implies both

Valette-Florence,

4.1).

an emotional reaction to imagined time

None of these methods has been widely

zones (such as future, present or past)

accepted because of their low reliability,

and a preference for locating action in

unstable

scoring

some temporal zone’ (p. 72). Zimbardo

difficulties (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004;

and Boyd (1999, p. 1271) define TP as

D’Alessio,

‘the often non-conscious process whereby

factor

2007)

(Table

structure,

Guarino,

De

or

Pascalis,

&

Zimbardo, 2003; Shores & Scott, 2007).

the continual flows of personal and social experiences are assigned to temporal

However, our review of the literature

categories, or time frames, that help to

shows that most authors provide a wider

give order, coherence, and meaning to

definition

three

those events’. More recently, Corral-

temporal categories. One of the most

Verdugo et al. (2006) use Zimbardo and

frequently

Boyd’s (1999) conception to define TP as

of

TP

cited

consisting definitions

of of

TP

is

provided by Lewin (1951), who defines TP

‘one

fundamental

as ‘the totality of the individual’s views of

construction of psychological time, which

his psychological future and psychological

includes

past existing at a given time’ (p. 75).

classifying human experience in past,

Lennings (1996) highlights cognitive,

present and future ‘compartments’’ (p.

affective and conative aspects of the

139).

those

dimension cognitive

in

the

processes

Table 4.1. Time perspective scales.

Scale – Authors (year) Time Competence Scale – Shostrom (1964) Time Reference Inventory – Roos and Albers (1965a, 1965b) Thematic Apperception Test – Wohlford (1966) Circles Test – Cottle (1967) Experimental Inventory – Cottle (1968) Time Attitude Scale – Nuttin (1985) Sensation Seeking Scale – Zuckerman et al. (1978) Time Structured Questionnaire – Bond and Feather (1988) Time Lines – Rappaport (1990) Stanford Time Perspective Inventory – Zimbardo (1990) Consideration of Future Consequences Scale – Strathman et al. (1994) Future Anxiety Scale – Zaleski (1996) Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory – Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) Chetthamrongchai and Davies (2000) Time Styles Scale – Usunier and Valette-Florence (2007) Consideration of Future Consequences–14 Scale – Joireman et al. (2012)

Temporal categories Past Present Future X X X X X X X X X X X (a) X X (a) X X X X X X X X X (b) X X X X (c) X (c) X X X X X X X (d)

Notes: (a) double past and future: near and distant; (b) double present: hedonist and fatalist; (c) double past: negative and positive; double present: hedonistic and fatalistic; (d) double future: CFC-future and CFCimmediate.

95

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN The relative emphasis or habitual focus on

negative, past-positive, present-fatalist,

any time frames (usually of past, present,

present-hedonist,

and future) is defined as TP, which has

theoretical foundation of ZTPI combines

cognitive,

social

motivational, emotional, cognitive, and

Zimbardo,

social processes that are presumed to

2004). Furthermore, the formation of

contribute to TP and to be influenced by it

TP is influenced by three factors: the

(Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Although the

socialisation

five subscales of the ZTPI are related to

emotional

components

and

(Boniwell

individual’s

&

process

cultural

(e.g.

values,

an

dominant

many

and

psychological

constructs,

religious orientation, kind of education,

remain

socioeconomic

family

conceptual

independence

experiences

Zimbardo,

2004;

modelling),

status,

or

personal

distinct,

future.

their

(Boniwell

Zimbardo

&

Boyd,

or personal successes), and situational

psychometric properties and it has

forces (e.g. being on holiday or under

been used to predict different behavioural

survival stresses) (Boniwell, Osin, Linley,

and personal features for more than a

&

decade (Boniwell et al., 2010; Corral-

Boniwell

&

Zimbardo, 2004).

has

&

1999).

2010;

ZTPI

they

throughout life (e.g. traumatic events

Ivanchenko,

The

maintaining

The

good

Verdugo et al., 2006; Drake et al., 2008; Mello & Worrell, 2006; Shores & Scott,

Based

on

the

above

2007). Some modifications include short

definitions have commonly included three

versions, such as the 36-item ZTPI, which

temporal categories (past, present, and

is suitable for cross-cultural comparisons

future),

(Sircova

an

fact

that

adequate

the

measurement

et

al.,

2014);

three

main

instrument for the assessment of TP must

dimensions: past, present and future

consider at least these three time frames.

orientations (Karande & Merchant, 2012);

The TP scales used to measure these

or two dimensions: past and future

three temporal categories are shown

(Webster, 2011).

in

Table

4.1

Chetthamrongchai

(e.g. &

those

Davies,

of

2000;

Table 4.2 shows the main features of the

Cottle, 1967; Nuttin, 1985; Zimbardo,

five

1990). However, these instruments have

(Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004; D’Alessio et

the

the

al., 2003; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).

instruments mentioned above (i.e. low

Firstly, the past-negative perspective

reliability, unstable factor structure, and

reflects a generally pessimistic, negative

scoring difficulties). The ZTPI, which was

or aversive view or attitude towards the

developed by Zimbardo and Boyd (1999)

past, presenting a potentially disturbing

to solve the shortcomings of previous

portrait. These negative attitudes may be

scales,

the

96

same

has

disadvantages

five

as

dimensions:

past-

TPs,

result

based

of

on

actual

several

studies

experiences

of

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION unpleasant

or

traumatic

the

openly love adventures and risk taking.

negative reconstruction of benign events,

High levels of self-monitoring have been

or a mixture of both. This dimension

cited

suggests

present-fatalistic

trauma,

pain,

events,

and

regret.

for

individuals or

with

dominant

present-hedonistic

Secondly, past-positive perspective is

TPs, and they are therefore presumed to

related

positive

be able to adapt and feel secure in

construction of the past. This dimension

different surroundings. Fifthly, future-

reflects

often

oriented people are dominated by a

attitude

striving for future ambitious goals and

to

a

a

nostalgic

warm,

sentimental,

and

towards

past

the

and

pleasurable, nostalgic

on

rewards, and place an emphasis on

maintaining relationships with family and

planning and punctuality. They are self-

friends. A common feature of both past-

responsible

negative and past-positive orientations is

always bear in mind the consequences,

that they act and decide in response to

contingences, and probable outcomes of

recurrent situations that reflect their past

present

experiences. They do not take chances,

individuals feel pressed for time but are

tend to be conservative, and are not

willing to sacrifice present enjoyment in

attracted to new experiences. Thirdly,

order to achieve their career objectives,

present-fatalistic

whilst delaying gratification and avoiding

represents

a

with

emphasis

perspective

fatalistic,

helpless,

and

and

decisions

super-achievers,

or

actions.

and

These

time-wasting temptations.

hopeless attitude towards the future and life. Present-fatalistic people believe that

Table 4.2.

the

Time perspective dimensions and features.

future

is

uninfluenced

by

predestined individual

and

actions,

whereas the present must be borne with

Dimension

resignation because they tend to see themselves as puppets in the hands of

Pastnegative

fate. They tend to be dissatisfied with their present life and are ready to take the blame for their failures and to deny their

Pastpositive

achievements. Fourthly, the presenthedonist

perspective

suggests

an

orientation towards present pleasure with little concern for future consequences.

Presentfatalist Presenthedonist

Present-hedonistic people live for the moment,

value

hedonistic

pleasures,

Future

Features Depressive, anxiety, unhappiness, low self-esteem, aggression, shyness, temperamental, choleric, conservative, cautious, avoiding changes and new experiences Self-esteem, friendliness, energetic, nostalgic, happy, without past regrets, warm, pleasurable, sentimental, conservative, cautious, avoiding changes and new experiences Aggression, depression, hopeless, anxious, choleric Ego under-control, novelty seeker, sensation seeker, energetic, impulsive, passionate Conscientiousness, hard worker, energetic, impulses under-control, innovator, seek reward

enjoy high-intensity activities, seek thrills

Source: Boniwell and Zimbardo (2004); D’Alessio et

and new sensations, avoid pains, and

al. (2003); Zimbardo and Boyd (1999).

97

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN The

literature

possibility

review

of

reveals

qualitatively

the

simultaneous

bias

towards

different

different

temporal frames have a BTP, which is the

versions of the future derived from the

state and the ongoing process of being

anxiety and frustrations of trying to fit in

capable of operating in a temporal

with society’s schedule-driven emphasis

mode

(Spears & Amos, 2012). The future-

situation in which they find themselves.

negative perspective involves worrying

According to Zimbardo (2002), in an

about the future and anticipating negative

optimally BTP, the past, present and

outcomes, which results in a poor ability

future components ‘blend and flexibly

to enjoy the present (Carelli, Wiberg, &

engage,

Wiberg, 2011; Mello & Worrell, 2006;

demands and our needs and values’.

Wiberg

Students with a BTP may thus focus

et

al.,

2012).

These

that

is

appropriate

depending

a

situation’s

intensively

consequences are not included in the

excellent

ZTPI, and this may therefore show that

celebrating intensively the end of these

this

exams,

comprehensive investigate a

is

not

scale fuller

a

sufficiently

with

which

spectrum

of

studying

the

interpretations of the future with negative

instrument

on

on

to

marks and

in

on

to

their

enjoying

achieve

exams,

on

themselves

to

during family events. They choose to

TP.

work hard when it is time to work, enjoy

Nevertheless, it continues to be the

themselves

leading

celebrations, and to be close to their

scale

used

to

measure

TP

(Boniwell et al., 2010).

when

it

is

time

for

families when it is a family moment. It is supposed that they are able to switch

4.2.2.

Balanced time perspective

among

different

temporal

frames

depending on task features, situational The description of different TPs makes it

considerations, and personal resources

possible to note the main differences as

(Wiberg et al., 2012).

regards how the temporal view may shape actions, These

individuals’ and

thoughts,

dispositional

dimensions

feelings,

tendencies.

measure

People

with

a

BTP

therefore

score

higher on past-positive, future, and

people’s

present-hedonist, but lower on past-

propensity to have each type of time

negative and present-fatalistic (Drake

orientation. Nevertheless, for example,

et al., 2008). This is the more functional

people who are predominantly present

or

oriented could also think about their

dysfunctional orientations (past-negative

future (Cotte, Ratneshwar, & Mick, 2004).

and present-fatalist), high scores on the

ideal

functional

profile

ones

with

low

scores

(past-positive

on

and

In their study, Zimbardo and Boyd (1999)

future), and a moderate score on the

suggest that individuals that have a

remaining present-hedonist orientation

98

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004; Sircova et

research linking TP and leisure is based on

al., 2014). According to this, people who

qualitative studies or small sample sizes,

have a BTP have a positive attitude

with the sole exception of the study by

towards their past, enjoy the present and

Shores and Scott (2007).

focus on future goals (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Empirical research has focused

Considering the circumstances described

almost

above, it would appear that a theoretical

entirely

on

the

relationship

between having a BTP and subjective

framework

derived

well-being (Boniwell et al., 2010; Drake

behaviour

is

et al., 2008; Gao, 2013; Wiberg et al.,

understand the role of TP in leisure

2012). They agree that having a BTP is a

choices. Davies and Omer (1996) propose

more optimal alternative to living life than

a time allocation model for this. These

the slavery of belonging to a specific

authors point out that, in the ‘inter-

temporal

have

activity’ process, the amount of time

associated a BTP with more positive

spent on each three major blocks or

emotions, subjective happiness, and life

activity

satisfaction. Wiberg et al. (2012) refer to

discretionary

other

from

time) is determined by both exogenous

having a BTP, such as a purpose in life

(e.g. culture, social structure, economic

(Shipp, Edwards,

situation,

frame.

specific

These

benefits &

studies

derived

Lambert, 2009),

types

from

needed

(paid

time,

consumer to

work,

and

legislation,

better

non-

discretionary

etc.)

and

better psychological health (Zimbardo &

endogenous variables (e.g. age, sex,

Boyd, 1999), and patience as a virtue

TP as an important aspect of overall

(Schnitker & Emmons, 2007).

personality, etc.). In what they label as the ‘intro-activity’ allocation process, time

4.2.3.

Time perspective and leisure

is allocated and reallocated to different

choices

activities within each activity type in the same way as above. Lastly, the outcomes

Boniwell and Zimbardo (2004) emphasize

of

both

processes

that TP affects attention, perception,

particularly in terms of satisfaction, and

decision-making and actions, and that it

this evaluation is another input to the

is one of the most powerful influences on

allocation process. This model proposed

almost all aspects of human behaviour.

by Davies and Omer (1996) explicitly

Paradoxically, only a few studies (Cotte &

recognizes the influence of TP on the

Ratneshwar, 2003; Philipp, 1992; Shores,

amount of time spent on leisure (in

2005; Shores & Scott, 2007) investigate

the ‘inter-activity’ process) and the time

the effects of TP on leisure choices: the

allocated to different leisure activities

amount of free time available, benefits

(in the ‘intro-activity’ process). However,

sought, and activities. Furthermore, most

they

conclude

that

are

the

evaluated,

exogenous

99

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN variables are likely to dominate the

highlight exciting leisure activities (Martin

former decisions, whereas endogenous

et al., 2009). Consequently, it can be

variables, including TP, are more likely to

argued that TP does not necessarily

determine the latter.

determine participation/non-participation in

Bergadaà

(1990)

introduces

an

leisure

activities,

but

rather

the

content of the activities.

alternative theoretical model in which TP (that is, an orientation toward present,

More recently, Cotte and Ratneshwar

past, or future formed by a mix of

(2000,

personal

environmental/social

theoretical approach with which to

aspects) leads to different motivations,

examine how timestyle influences the

plans and types of products and services

choice of leisure goals, and impacts on

purchased. TP also influences consumers’

consumers’ decisions regarding leisure

attitudes and how they organise and

products,

choose

self-

Cotte and Ratneshwar (2000) assume

organised versus non-organised, personal

that consumer behaviour is goal-driven,

choice versus external selection, etc.).

and that leisure consumption implies the

More

a

consumption of discretionary time. They

qualitative study, this author describes

then point out that ‘leisure behaviours

the differences between present and

and

future orientation as regards two products

explained, at least in part, by people’s

related to leisure: holidays and books.

timestyles’ (Cotte & Ratneshwar, 2003, p.

Present-oriented people prefer package

560). These authors suggest that an

holidays and reading books for relaxation,

individual’s

whereas future-oriented individuals have

dimensions: social orientation, temporal

a greater preference for self-organised

orientation,

trips

enriching

polychronic orientation. The objective of

informative

our research has led us to focus our

books (Bergadaà, 1990). Similarly, Martin

attention on temporal orientation (the

et al. (2009) suggest that both future-

relative significance of past, present or

oriented

people

future) or TP, as we have called it. Cotte

could read magazines. However, future-

and Ratneshwar (2003) conclude that TP

oriented people could read magazines

appears to influence not only day-to-

that discuss issues such as investments

day leisure activities but also more

and retirement incomes (e.g. Fortune),

major leisure consumption decisions.

while present-oriented people, who tend

Their qualitative research has led them

to

to

and

products/services

specifically,

designed

experiences

and

engage

to

and

and

(e.g.

based

provide reading

present-oriented

in

on

sensation-seeking

behaviours, could read magazines that

100

2003)

have

services

consumption

state

and

planning

a

activities.

patterns

timestyle

that

proposed

can

has

four

orientation,

past-oriented

be

and

people

concentrate on activities such as visiting

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION the neighbourhoods in which they grew

The

theoretical

up and talking to old friends on the phone.

qualitative

Present-oriented people’s leisure choices

(Bergadaà, 1990; Cotte & Ratneshwar,

are more likely to be based on hedonic

2000, 2003; Davies & Omer, 1996) allow

pursuits (e.g. casino gambling, shopping,

us

playing on the Internet, or going out with

precisely (Figure 4.1). Surprisingly, few

friends or family for dinner). Future-

quantitative studies have examined the

oriented individuals often pursue personal

impact of TP on leisure choices. Although

development activities such as cookery

there is little empirical evidence, the main

classes, golf classes, or poetry discussion

findings of previous quantitative studies

groups.

are described in more detail below.

to

studies

define

our

models

and

reviewed

above

objectives

more

Figure 4.1. Research objectives.

Objective 1

Objective 4a

Amount of free time available on…  

Weekdays (FTW) Sundays (FTS)

Time perspectives (TPs)     

Past-negative (NEG) Past-positive (POS) Present-fatalistic (FAT) Present-hedonistic (HED) Future (FUT)

Leisure benefits sought

Objective 2 Objective 4b

    

Sociability (SOC) Physical fitness (PHY) Learning and competence testing (LEA) Spirituality (SPI) Risk taking (RIS)

Balanced time perspective (BTP)

Objective 3 Objective 4c

Frequency of engaging in leisure activities (how often people had spent time on 25 leisure activities in the previous month)

101

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN The first research objective

is to

One

of

these

internal

personality.

TPs and the amount of free time

undergraduate student sample, Barnett

available.

(2013) finds that the facets of the Big Five

introduces concept

the

of

(2005),

social

TP

to

who

psychological

leisure

studies,

personality

in

dimensions

a

is

evaluate the relationship between the five Shores

Thus,

attributes

large

(neuroticism,

extraversion, openness to experience,

hypothesises that TPs prove to have

agreeableness,

and

conscientiousness)

significant relationships to the amount of

were predictive of six desired outcomes

residual time (defined as time not spent

(new experiences, challenges and skills,

at work) and time allocated to leisure. In

internal rewards, social interaction, feel

a study with 148 undergraduate students,

good, and active engagement).

no differences were observed in the amount of residual time between each TP.

With regard to the relationship between

Conversely, significant differences were

TP, as an important influence on overall

observed in the percentage of residual

personality, and leisure benefits sought,

time allocated to leisure for respondents

the only empirical research to have been

with different TPs. What is more, present-

conducted on this specific issue is that by

fatalistic

Shores and Scott (2007). These authors

and

present-hedonistic

individuals averaged more than twice the

selected

six

benefit

domains

(family

amount of recreation time than future-

togetherness, physical fitness, learning,

oriented respondents (Shores, 2005).

competence testing, spirituality, and risk taking), which provided information about

Our second research objective is to

the

empirically determine whether the five

sociability,

TPs have an influence on the leisure

psychological state goals. These benefit

benefits sought. The answer to the

domains are the only ones for which a

question ‘why do people engage in leisure

theoretical basis exists in TP literature.

activities’ has motivated a great deal of

These authors’ two key findings are as

research in leisure studies (for a more

follows.

detailed review, see Dillard & Bates,

influence of TP on leisure benefits is more

2011). More specifically, leisure studies

important

have described how internal attributes

variables (e.g. age, gender, income,

(inputs) are related to personal benefits

etc.). Second, for the six leisure benefits,

that

past-negative

individuals

(outputs)

(Shores

seek

and

acquire

&

Scott,

2007).

desired

outcomes

related

achievement,

First,

they

than

and

show

to and

that

the

socio-demographic

present-fatalistic

people were least likely to describe any

However, there is a lack of systematic and

benefit

comprehensive research on this topic

respondents classified as future-oriented

(Barnett, 2013; Shores & Scott, 2007).

and past-positive attributed the highest

102

as

important,

whereas

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION level of importance to all leisure benefits

were linked to a future time orientation.

sought except risk taking. Shores and

This is why Philipp (1992, p. 663)

Scott (2007, p. 98) therefore concluded

concludes that

that

time

‘appear to seek many specific leisure

perspectives are good and healthy time

activities much more frequently than

perspectives for shaping our free time’.

those individuals with a past or present

‘past-positive

and

future

future-oriented

time orientation’. No

other

people

empirical

The third objective is to explore whether

studies have been found which have

TPs predict how often people spend

examined the relationship between TPs

time on different leisure activities.

and a wide range of leisure activities,

Philipp (1992) provides tentative support

although there are studies in which a

for the hypothesis that TPs are associated

single

with participation in leisure activities. The

reported (Epel, Bandura, & Zimbardo,

Experimental Inventory used by Cottle

1999;

(1968) was used as a basis to assess five

Lukavska, 2012).

leisure

activity

Karande

&

has

Merchant,

been 2012;

time orientations (i.e. distant past, near past, present, near future, and distant

For instance, Epel et al. (1999) report that

future), and 149 respondents were asked

the future orientation of homeless adults

to report whether they had participated in

living in shelters (N = 82) was related to

each of 39 leisure activities during the last

less time spent watching TV and passing

year. Philipp (1992) reports that 15 of the

time, whereas present orientation was

39 activities (38%) were significantly

related to more time spent on these

associated

activities.

with

orientations.

one

or of

In

a

study

with

306

undergraduate students, Karande and

to

Merchant (2012) found that present time

bars/nightclubs, going to movies, going to

orientation influences impulsiveness, and

concerts, reading a newspaper, reading

that the latter affects the consumer’s

for

were

recreational shopper identity, which in

orientation

turn influences shopping behaviour (i.e.

(camping,

pleasure,

associated

and

with

a

the

time leisure

activities

Seven

more going

swimming) past

(composed of distant past and near past),

browsing,

whereas going to amusement parks and

frequency, number or stores shopped at,

going to zoos were the only two activities

time spent shopping, and dollars spent).

related

Nine

TPs even predict the extent to which 154

vehicles,

respondents waste their time playing

activities

to

present (driving

orientation. off-road

online

concerts, horseback riding, playing indoor

significant negative correlation was found

sports,

between future TP and the amount of time

outdoor

sports,

swimming, and watching sporting events)

(Lukavska,

shopping

fishing, going to bars/nightclubs, going to playing

games

socializing,

2012):

a

spent on this activity.

103

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN The fourth objective of our research is

and, most importantly, to identify the

to investigate differences in leisure

potential benefits of each activity. On the

choices between BTP and non-BTP

other hand, individuals with a BTP also

groups. As noted in the section above,

make the most of their leisure time

almost all previous research into BTP has

(Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2003) and may

focused on its influence on well-being.

spend less time on passive entertainment

This study is in fact the first to link BTP to

or boring activities.

the

amount

of

free

time

available,

benefits sought, and leisure activities.

Following the discussion in the previous

Nevertheless, research in the field of

paragraph, in the current study we expect

positive

that:

psychology

(Boniwell,

2012)

provides support for the key role of a BTP in the ability to use leisure time in a

(a)

The amount of free time available

positive and healthy way, while Boniwell

for BTP and non-BTP groups will

and Zimbardo (2003) point out that a BTP

be similar;

is related to the way in which people use their time and is useful for solving the

(b)

BTP group will be more likely to

dilemmas of work-leisure balance. As

describe all of the leisure benefits

Boniwell

sought as important; and

(2012,

p.

80)

clarifies,

‘a

balanced use of time does not mean equal allocation of time to work and leisure, it

(c)

Differences between

BTP and

does not even necessarily mean investing

non-BTP groups will be observed

more time into leisure’. It is a matter of

as

quality rather than quantity. Individuals

participation in activities that are

with

intimately

a

BTP

seek

quality

leisure

regards

the

frequency

of

associated

with

entertainment

(e.g.

experiences, rather than having more

passive

free time. Furthermore, it seems clear

watching TV) or activities without

that a satisfying use of leisure time is

content (e.g. resting and time

characteristic of a balance in our TP

out).

(Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2003). On the one hand, people with a BTP have the ability

4.3.

Method

4.3.1.

Data collection and sample

to be flexible in shifting from one TP to another and are capable of adopting a TP that is appropriate to the situation in

profile

which they find themselves (Boniwell, 2012; Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2003). This

A total of 374 undergraduate and

ability allows them to be fully involved in

Master’s degree students from the

the leisure activities in which they engage

UCLM answered a questionnaire about TP

104

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION and leisure in December 2013. The

(Sircova et al., 2014). The original ZTPI

UCLM is a Spanish public university at

consisted of 56 items, but we decided to

which more than 31,000 students are

use a shortened version of 20 items (four

enrolled.

was

for each TP) based on the results (i.e.

the

items with the highest factor loadings) of

software

a previous study conducted in Spain

(https://www.surveymonkey.com/). The

(Díaz-Morales, 2006). A 5-point Likert

average duration of the survey was 17

scale was used, ranging from strongly

minutes. After deleting incomplete cases,

disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).

The

questionnaire

administered

online

using

SurveyMonkey®

we retained 320 usable questionnaires for data analysis.

The second section was dedicated to leisure choices: the amount of free time

The average age of the participants was

available, benefits sought, and activities.

22.28 years (SD = 3.67), with a range of

Two questions were about the amount of

18 to 43 years of age. The distribution by

free time available on weekdays and

sex was 57.19% females and 42.81%

Sundays (hours), respectively, referring

males.

were

more specifically to the time that had

undergraduate students, while 13.75%

been available the previous week. The

were Master’s degree students. A small

leisure benefits sought were measured

proportion

of

using 15 items on a 5-point Likert scale

performed

paid

The

majority

the

(86.25%)

sample

work.

(16.25%)

Nearly

65%

ranging from not at all important (1) to

reported living in the family home. Over

very important (5). We used 14 items

75% of the respondents resided in an

from Shores and Scott (2007) and added

urban area. The average family size was

an additional item from Barnett (2013)

4.03 members (SD = 1.07), and the

related to sociability: ‘to be with my

monthly family income per capita was, on

friends’. The respondents also reported

average, 387.68 € (SD = 287.29).

how often they had spent time on 25 leisure

4.3.2.

Instruments

month.

activities The

during

choice

of

the these

previous leisure

activities was based on studies conducted The questionnaire consisted of three

by Rodríguez and Agulló (1999) and von

sections

Normann (2009). A pre-test with 20

(Appendix

C).

The

first

section included 20 items derived

undergraduate

from the ZTPI (Zimbardo & Boyd,

confirmed the appropriate selection of

1999). The ZTPI is considered to be a

activities. The response options were

reliable and valid measure of five TPs:

never (1), once a month (2), more than

past-negative,

present-

once a month but less than once a week

fatalistic, present-hedonistic, and future

(3), once a week (4), more than once a

past-positive,

students

further

105

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN week but less than once a day (5), and

and significant control variables were also

daily or almost daily (6).

included. Five different link functions (cauchit, complementary log-log, logit,

The

last

section

collected

socio-

negative log-log, and probit) can be used

demographic information (i.e. age,

to obtain a set of candidate models

sex, education level, paid work, living in

(Norusis, 2012). This author suggests

the family home, family size, and family

that the researcher may delimit the link

income). These variables were used to

functions a

characterise the sample and as control

distribution of the dependent variables

variables in the subsequent analyses.

(Appendix D). More specifically, the

priori

depending

on

the

cauchit function is a reasonable choice 4.3.3. Two

Data analysis

confirmatory

when the outcome has many extreme

factor

analyses

values,

the

function

is

complementary appropriate

log-log

when

higher

(CFA) of the TPs and leisure benefits

categories are more probable, the logit

sought scales were conducted using EQS

model is suggested when the outcome is

6.1 for Windows. The normalised estimate

uniformly distributed, the negative log-

of Mardia's coefficients of multivariate

log function is more suitable when lower

kurtosis were high (11.81 and 17.66,

categories are more probable, and the

respectively), indicating multivariate non-

probit function provides better predictions

normality.

when the outcome is normally distributed.

likelihood

The

robust

estimation

maximum

method

was

However, there is no general method that

therefore used. Stepwise hierarchical

can be used to choose the proper link

regression analyses were then used to

function (Khan & Almas, 2013). We used

evaluate the relationship between the five

the

TPs and the amount of free time available

goodness-of-fit to monitor the candidate

(Objective 1) on the one hand, and the

models and choose the proper ones, as

leisure benefits sought (Objective 2) on

suggested by Khan and Almas (2013).

test

of

parallel

lines

and

the

the other. Exogenous variables were entered

hierarchically in

two

blocks:

With regard to the relationship between a

control variables (block 1), and TPs (block

BTP and leisure choices (Objective 4),

2).

various

approaches

can

be

used

to

operationalize BTP (for a more detailed The impact of TPs on each leisure activity

review, see Wiberg et al., 2012; Zhang,

(Objective

using

Howell, & Stolarski, 2013). We have used

ordinal regression analyses in which

a cluster-analysis to operationalize the

leisure benefits sought, amount of free

BTP using the standardised scores of the

time available on weekdays and Sundays

five ZTPI subscales, as proposed by

106

3)

was

examined

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Boniwell et al. (2010). These authors

loadings

applied a hierarchical cluster analysis in

respectively).

order to identify the BTP and non-BTP

corrections, the overall model fit was

groups. Nevertheless, we performed a

adequate (Schumacker & Lomax, 2010).

latent class cluster analysis (LCCA)

Regarding reliability, the ordinal alpha (O-

using Latent Gold® 4.5 owing to its

α), recommended by Gadermann, Guhn,

significant

other

and Zumbo (2012) for Likert-type items

procedures (Oppewal et al., 2010). The

with 2 to 7 response options, ranged from

differences between BTP and non-BTP

0.74 for past-positive to 0.84 for present-

groups as regards the amount of free time

hedonistic, while the composite reliability

available and the leisure benefits sought

(CR) values exceeded the threshold of

(Objectives 4a and 4b, respectively) were

0.70 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). All

analysed using t-tests, whereas the

loadings were significant (p < 0.001) and

differences in how often the respondents

above

had spent time on 25 leisure activities

extracted (AVE) values greater than or

(Objective 4c) were conducted using

close

Mann-Whitney U tests. All regression

convergent validity (Fornell & Larcker,

and bivariate analyses were performed

1981).

with IBM® SPSS® Statistics 19.0.

construct was higher than the squared

advantages

over

(0.42,

0.28,

Having

0.60. to

and

0.32,

made

these

Average

0.50

variance

indicated

Moreover,

the

AVE

sufficient for

each

correlations for all pairs of constructs 4.4.

Results

(Fornell

&

Larcker,

1981)

and

discriminant validity was ensured. 4.4.1.

Confirmatory factor analyses: time perspectives and leisure

A CFA for the leisure benefits sought

benefits sought

scale allowed us to group 15 items into five

benefit

domains:

sociability,

As a starting point, the 20 items from the

physical fitness, learning and competence

shortened version of the ZTPI were

testing,

subjected to a CFA in order to assess the

(Table 4.4). This factor structure was

adequacy of the five-factor model:

very similar to that identified by Shores

past-negative,

present-

and Scott (2007), except for the fact that

fatalistic, present-hedonistic, and future

these authors examine ‘learning’ and

(Table 4.3). Three items (‘POS3. I get

‘competence

nostalgic about my childhood’, ‘FAT4.

domains, whereas we grouped them into

Often luck pays off better than hard

a single construct owing to their high

work’, and ‘HED4. I try to live my life as

correlation. The results from the CFA

fully as possible, one day at a time’) were

indicated an acceptable fit for the five-

deleted

factor model, adequate reliability levels,

owing

past-positive,

to

low

standardised

spirituality,

testing’

and

as

risk

two

taking

distinct

107

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN and

satisfactory

convergent

(loadings

weighted

arithmetic analyses,

means in

for

the

which

the

above 0.60, with the exception of ‘SOC3.

subsequent

To be with my friends’ = 0.46; and AVE

weights were the standardised loadings

above 0.50) and discriminant validity.

derived from the previous CFA. Appendix E provides the descriptive statistics

The scores for the five TPs and leisure

regarding the five TPs and leisure

benefits

benefits sought.

sought

were

calculated

as

Table 4.3. Results from confirmatory factor analysis: time perspectives.

Concept/Item

Loading

O-α

CR

AVE

0.80

0.79

0.74

Square correlation NEG

POS

FAT

HED

FUT

0.49

1.00

0.00

0.00

0.01

0.03

0.72

0.47

0.00

1.00

0.07

0.00

0.06

0.79

0.75

0.50

0.00

0.07

1.00

0.03

0.11

0.84

0.80

0.58

0.01

0.00

0.03

1.00

0.08

0.81

0.79

0.49

0.03

0.06

0.11

0.08

1.00

PAST-NEGATIVE (NEG) NEG1. I think about the bad things that have happened to me in the past NEG2. It’s hard for me to forget unpleasant images of my youth NEG3. Painful past experiences keep being replayed in my mind NEG4. The past has too many unpleasant memories that I prefer not to think about

0.62*** 0.71*** 0.78*** 0.67***

PAST-POSITIVE (POS) POS1. Familiar childhood sights, sounds, smells often bring back a flood of wonderful memories POS2. Happy memories of good times spring readily to mind POS4. I enjoy stories about how things used to be in the ‘good old times’

0.72*** 0.66*** 0.67***

PRESENT-FATALISTIC (FAT) FAT1. It doesn’t make sense to worry about the future, since there is nothing that I can do about it anyway FAT2. Since whatever will be will be, it doesn’t really matter what I do FAT3. You can’t really plan for the future because things change so much

0.71*** 0.74*** 0.66***

PRESENT-HEDONISTIC (HED) HED1. I take risks to put excitement in my life HED2. It's important to put excitement in my life HED3. Taking risks keeps my life from becoming boring

0.68*** 0.82*** 0.77***

FUTURE (FUT) FUT1. I complete projects on time by making steady progress FUT2. I am able to resist temptations when I know that there is work to be done FUT3. Meeting tomorrow’s deadlines and doing other necessary work comes before tonight’s play FUT4. When I want to achieve something, I set goals and consider specific means for reaching those goals

0.66*** 0.77*** 0.71*** 0.63***

Goodness of fit summary: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square (df = 109) = 144.22 (p = 0.01); BentlerBonett normed fit index (BBNFI) = 0.90; Bentler-Bonett non-normed fit index (BBNNFI) = 0.97; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.97; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.97; McDonald's fit index (MFI) = 0.95; root meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.03. Notes: O-α: ordinal alpha; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted; ***p < 0.001.

108

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 4.4. Results from confirmatory factor analysis: leisure benefits sought.

Concept/Item

Loading

O-α

CR

AVE

SOC

Square correlation PHY LEA SPI

RIS SOCIABILITY (SOC) SOC1. To do something 0.89*** with my family SOC2. To bring my family 0.78 0.76 0.53 1.00 0.02 0.14 0.10 0.02 0.78*** closer together SOC3. To be with my 0.46*** friends PHYSICAL FITNESS (PHY) PHY1. To get exercise 0.91*** PHY2. To keep physically 0.96 0.94 0.84 0.02 1.00 0.17 0.05 0.06 0.95*** fit PHY3. To feel good after 0.89*** being physically active LEARNING AND COMPETENCE TESTING (LEA) LEA1. To develop my 0.77*** knowledge about things 0.91 0.87 0.62 0.14 0.17 1.00 0.15 0.21 LEA2. To learn about 0.87*** things LEA3. To test my abilities 0.84*** LEA4. To learn what I am 0.67*** capable of SPIRITUALITY (SPI) SPI1. To grow and 0.97*** develop spiritually 0.92 0.90 0.81 0.10 0.05 0.15 1.00 0.03 SPI2. To reflect on my 0.83*** spiritual values RISK TAKING (RIS) RIS1. To take risks 0.63*** RIS2. To chance 0.80*** 0.84 0.81 0.59 0.02 0.06 0.21 0.03 1.00 dangerous situations RIS3. To experience the 0.86*** risks involved Goodness of fit summary: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square (df = 80) = 197.13 (p < 0.001); BentlerBonett normed fit index (BBNFI) = 0.92; Bentler-Bonett non-normed fit index (BBNNFI) = 0.93; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.95; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.95; McDonald's fit index (MFI) = 0.83; root meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.07. Notes: O-α: ordinal alpha; CR: composite reliability; AVE: average variance extracted; ***p < 0.001.

4.4.2.

Relationship

between

time

demographic

characteristics,

future

perspectives and the amount

orientation had negative impacts on the

of free time available

leisure time available on weekdays and Sundays, while the present-hedonistic

Table 4.5 shows the outcomes of the two

perspective had a positive effect on the

stepwise hierarchical regression analyses

amount of hours spent participating in

used to determine the proportions of

leisure

variance in the amount of free time

significant effects were observed for

available

the other TPs examined (i.e. past-

explained

on by

weekdays the

TPs

and and

Sundays control

variables. After controlling for socio-

activities

negative,

on

weekdays.

past-positive,

and

No

present-

fatalistic).

109

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 4.5. Stepwise hierarchical regression analysis predicting the amount of free time available.

Amount of free time available on weekdays Standardised ∆R2 coefficients (b*)

Block/Exogenous variable

BLOCK 1. CONTROL VARIABLES

0.09***

Sex (1 = female)d

Amount of free time available on Sundays ∆R2

b*

0.03** -0.15**

Paid work (1 = yes)d

-0.21***

Family size

-0.13*

0.09†

Family income per capita

-0.11†

BLOCK 2. TIME PERSPECTIVES

0.07***

0.05***

Past-negative Past-positive Present-fatalistic Present-hedonistic

0.10†

Future

-0.23***

TOTAL R2

0.16

F

-0.21*** 0.08

12.21***

8.63***

Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; dDummy variable.

4.4.3.

Relationship

between

perspectives

and

time

leisure

benefits sought

explained.

Neither

past-negative

nor

present-fatalistic were associated with the five leisure benefits sought. The pastpositive perspective had positive impacts

As

explained

earlier,

the

significant

on

sociability,

and

learning

and

control variables (i.e. age, sex, education

competence testing. Respondents who

level, living in the family home, or family

scored high on the present-hedonistic

size) were entered in the regression

perspective were more likely to seek risk-

equations in the first block and TPs were

taking benefits and less likely to seek

added

The

learning and competence testing benefits

coefficients of determination indicated

from leisure. Future TP had positive

that for four of the five leisure benefits

effects on learning and competence

sought, with the exception of spirituality,

testing, physical fitness, sociability,

more than 10% of the variance was

and spirituality (Table 4.6).

110

in

the

second

block.

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 4.6. Stepwise hierarchical regression analyses predicting leisure benefits sought.

Block/ Exogenous variable BLOCK 1. CONTROL VARIABLES

Physical fitness

Sociability ∆R2

b*

∆R2

0.09***

b*

0.06***

Learning and competence testing ∆R2

b*

0.00

Spirituality

Risk taking

∆R2

∆R2

b*

0.11†

Sex (1 = female)d

0.13*

Education level (1 = master's degree)d Living in family home (1 = yes)d

-0.24***

0.12*

0.10*

0.10†

-0.17***

-0.10†

Family size BLOCK 2. TIME PERSPECTIVES

0.01†

0.06**

Age

b*

0.15** 0.14***

0.05***

0.12***

0.01*

0.23***

Past-negative Past-positive

0.36***

0.12*

Present-fatalistic Present-hedonistic

-0.15**

Future TOTAL R2

0.11*

0.22***

0.23

F

0.11

22.97***

0.47***

0.30*** 0.12

13.09***

0.11* 0.07

14.20***

0.24

4.62***

48.69***

Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; dDummy variable.

4.4.4.

Relationship perspectives

between and

time

leisure

activities

discussed

below,

indicating

that

the

location parameters are equivalent across the levels of the dependent variable. When assessing model fit, Pearson and

Ordinal regression analyses were used to

deviance statistics (p > 0.05) indicated

explore how TPs predicted how often

a good fit to the data. Unfortunately, both

people had spent time on each leisure

goodness-of-fit

activity

month.

viewed with great caution. They are

Leisure benefits sought, amount of free

sensitive to empty cells when estimating

time available on weekdays and Sundays,

models with continuous covariates, as in

and significant control variables were also

our case. The Nagelkerke pseudo R2,

included in the ordinal regression models.

which appears to best exhibit palindromic

The test of parallel lines was non-

invariance (Smith & McKenna, 2012), was

significant (p > 0.05) in the models

accordingly used to evaluate goodness-

during

the

previous

statistics

should

be

111

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN of-fit for our models. The Nagelkerke

parameters and coefficients for significant

R values for the 25 models ranged from

control variables have been omitted for

0.04 (for travel and tourism, and going for

brevity, but are available upon request.

a walk) to 0.47 (for sports) (Table 4.7).

As can be seen in columns 1-6, 23 of the

Although these values were suitable for

25 leisure activities were significantly

an exploratory study, the Nagelkerke R

associated with one or more TPs. 10 of

2

2

was below 10% in seven activities,

these

23

activities

(reading

comics,

indicating that the predictors did not

shopping, nightlife, watching TV, surfing

explain much of the variance in these

the Internet, listening to the radio and

activities.

music, using social networks, attending concerts, attending sporting events, and

Table 4.8 shows the model parameter

going to the cinema) were significantly

estimates.

associated with more than one TP.

The

non-significant

Table 4.7. Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: test of parallel lines and goodness-of-fit.

Leisure activity Reading comics (d)

Test of parallel lines χ2 (df)

p

Nagelkerke pseudo R2

7.24 (52)

1.00

0.26

Shopping (c)

37.29 (48)

0.87

0.11

Nightlife (e)

68.49 (52)

0.06

0.18

Watching TV (b)

63.74 (48)

0.06

0.12

Reading books (printed or eBooks) (c)

51.73 (44)

0.20

0.07

Surfing the Internet (b)

38.08 (44)

0.72

0.11

Listening to the radio and music (c)

51.29 (40)

0.11

0.08

Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services (b)

45.01 (36)

0.14

0.17

Using social networks (b)

58.14 (48)

0.15

0.12

Sports (c)

52.41 (52)

0.46

0.47

Travel and tourism (e)

22.87 (44)

1.00

0.04

Attending concerts (d)

23.91 (44)

0.99

0.13

Attending sporting events (d)

54.43 (52)

0.38

0.20

Playing a musical instrument (d)

21.55 (48)

1.00

0.13

Attending the theatre or similar activities (c)

56.60 (44)

0.10

0.14

Collaborating with associations (e)

12.67 (44)

1.00

0.09

Going to the cinema (d)

27.96 (42)

0.95

0.12

Going for a walk (a)

60.07 (44)

0.05

0.04

Watching online videos (c)

55.87 (52)

0.33

0.16

Resting and time out (c)

50.41 (44)

0.23

0.13

Playing video games or online games (c)

59.36 (48)

0.13

0.16

Going out for a drink (e)

64.67 (48)

0.05

0.06

Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online) (b)

45.59 (48)

0.57

0.14

Going to restaurants (e)

44.60 (48)

0.61

0.06

Visiting museums and art galleries (d)

27.65 (52)

1.00

0.20

Notes: Link function: (a) cauchit; (b) complementary log-log; (c) logit; (d) negative log-log; (e) probit.

112

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Past perspectives (i.e. past-negative and

associated with reading newspapers and

past-positive)

magazines.

had

different

roles

in

predicting how often certain activities had been performed in the previous month.

Although it was not the objective of our

Past-negative perspective had negative

study, Table 4.8 also provides evidence

impacts on reading comics, shopping, and

regarding the extent to which there was a

nightlife;

relationship

orientation

whereas was

past-positive significantly

and

between

each

benefit

sought and leisure activity (columns

positively associated with reading comics,

7-11).

watching TV, reading books, surfing the

positive impacts on collaborating with

Internet, listening to the radio and music,

associations and some activities related to

and talking on the phone and using

the arts and culture (i.e. reading comics,

instant messaging services. The present-

attending concerts, playing a musical

fatalistic

associated

instrument, attending theatre or similar

with eight activities. It had an inverse

activities, and visiting museums and art

relationship with surfing the Internet,

galleries). With regard to the significant

using social networks, and sports; and a

control variables (columns 12 and 13),

direct relationship with watching TV,

we can highlight that sex was significantly

travel and tourism, attending concerts,

associated

attending sporting events, and playing a

Being female was associated with a higher

musical instrument. Mixed (positive and

propensity to participate in activities such

negative) results were similarly found for

as shopping, talking on the phone and

the relationship between the present-

using instant messaging services, and

hedonistic perspective and nine leisure

using social networks; while being male

activities, and had a positive relationship

was related to reading comics, nightlife,

with shopping, watching TV, using social

sports, attending sporting events, playing

networks, going for a walk, and watching

a musical instrument, watching online

online videos; and a negative relationship

videos, playing video games, and reading

with attending concerts, attending the

newspapers

theatre or similar activities, collaborating

interpretations can be made for living in

with

the

the family home and paid work, family

cinema. With regard to future TP, it was

income, family size, age, and education

negatively associated with eight activities

level, which were related to six, five, four,

(shopping, nightlife, listening to the radio

two

and music, attending sporting events,

respectively. The amount of free time

going to the cinema, resting and time out,

available

playing video games or online games, and

influenced the frequency of participation

going out for a drink) and positively

in five and eight activities, respectively.

perspective

associations,

and

was

going

to

For

example,

with

and on

and

one

11

spirituality

leisure

activities.

magazines.

leisure

weekdays

and

had

Similar

activities, Sundays

113

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 4.8. Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: parameter estimates.

Exogenous variable Leisure activity

Time perspectives (columns 2-6) Pastnegative

Reading comics

-0.44*

Shopping

-0.21†

Nightlife

-0.14†

Pastpositive

0.42**

Reading books (printed or eBooks)

0.32*

Surfing the Internet

0.44*

Listening to the radio and music

0.46*

0.27*

0.24†

-0.53**

0.75** -0.25†

Sports

-0.23†

Travel and tourism

0.13†

Attending concerts

0.14†

Attending sporting events

0.20†

0.27†

-0.19* -0.37**

0.43**

Attending the theatre or similar activities

-0.42*

Collaborating with associations

-0.25*

Going to the cinema

-0.19†

Going for a walk

0.21†

Watching online videos

0.30†

Playing video games or online games

-0.29†

-0.31*

Using social networks

Resting and time out

Future

-0.25** 0.25†

Playing a musical instrument

Presenthedonistic

0.49*

Watching TV

Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services

Presentfatalistic

-0.25*

-0.43** -0.30†

Going out for a drink

-0.24**

Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online)

0.19†

Going to restaurants Visiting museums and art galleries Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

114

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Table 4.8. (Continued) Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: parameter estimates.

Exogenous variable Leisure benefits sought (columns 7-11)

Leisure activity Sociability

Physical fitness

Reading comics Shopping

Learning and competence testing -0.69†

Risk taking

0.83***

-0.35*

Nightlife

-0.12*

Watching TV

-0.30**

Reading books (printed or eBooks) Surfing the Internet

Spirituality

-0.29* -0.37†

0.34† 0.58*

Listening to the radio and music

-0.40* -0.30*

Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services Using social networks

-0.38**

Sports

1.47***

-0.52*

Travel and tourism Attending concerts Attending sporting events

-0.24† 0.37*

0.12†

0.40***

Playing a musical instrument

0.38*

Attending the theatre or similar activities

0.48***

Collaborating with associations

0.21**

Going to the cinema Going for a walk

0.28†

Watching online videos

-0.48**

Resting and time out

0.25† -0.29*

Playing video games or online games Going out for a drink Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online)

0.27†

-0.20*

Going to restaurants Visiting museums and art galleries

0.15† 0.66***

Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

115

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 4.8. (Continued) Ordinal regression analyses predicting frequency of engaging in leisure activities: parameter estimates.

Exogenous variable Leisure activity

Significant control variables (p < 0.1) (columns 12-13) Positive parameter

Reading comics

Negative parameter Female; Home; Income

Shopping

Female

Size

Nightlife

FTS

Age; Female

Watching TV

Home; FTS

Reading books (printed or eBooks)

Work

Surfing the Internet

FTS

Listening to the radio and music Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services

Female

Using social networks

Female; FTS

Sports

FTS

Travel and tourism

Work

Attending concerts

FTW

Female; FTW

Size

Attending sporting events

FTS

Female; FTW

Playing a musical instrument

Work

Female

Attending the theatre or similar activities

Income

Collaborating with associations Going to the cinema

Home Work; Home

Going for a walk

Age; Size Income

Watching online videos

Size

Female; Home

Resting and time out

FTW

Playing video games or online games

FTS

Female

Going out for a drink

FTS

FTW

Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online)

Work

Female

Going to restaurants

Education; Income

Visiting museums and art galleries

Work; Income

Home

Notes: †p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. Female: sex (1 = female); Education: education level (1 = master's degree); Work: paid work (1 = yes); Home: living in the family home (1 = yes); Size: family size; Income: family income per capita (€); FTW: amount of free time available on weekdays; FTS: amount of free time available on Sundays.

116

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION 4.4.5.

Relationship balanced

between

time

a

The first cluster (59.69%) was labelled

perspective

non-BTP and included individuals with

and leisure choice

high

scores

in

past-negative

present-fatalistic

perspectives

and (0.14

We conducted a LCCA in order to identify

and 0.35 standard deviations over the

groups with and without a BTP. Five

sample mean, respectively). The second

models were considered, each of which

cluster (40.31%) was a BTP group that

incorporated

between

was characterised by high scores as

homogeneity)

and

one

five

(sample

clusters.

We

regards

future,

past-positive

and

selected the most parsimonious model

present-hedonistic subscales, and low

according

scores

to

the

consistent

Akaike

as

regards past-negative and

information criterion (CAIC). Lower CAIC

present

fatalistic

values indicate a better fit (Wedel and

4.10). Each individual was assigned to a

Kamakura, 2000). The results presented

group

in Table 4.9 indicate that there were two

pattern: 191 were individuals with a non-

clusters.

BTP and 129 had a BTP.

according

perspectives to

his/her

(Table response

Table 4.9. Statistics for the latent class cluster models.

Model

Log-likelihood (LL)

Number of parameters

CAIC(LL)

Classification errors

One cluster

-2267.80

4603.28

10

0.00

Two clusters*

-2219.60

4581.34

21

0.11

Three clusters

-2188.50

4593.59

32

0.18

Four clusters

-2165.78

4622.60

43

0.19

Five clusters

-2148.41

4662.32

54

0.20

Notes: CAIC: consistent Akaike information criterion; *Best model according to CAIC.

Table 4.10. Significance of the indicators and profiles for the two clusters.

Indicator

Robust Wald statistic

Standard deviations from the sample mean p

Cluster 1. Non-balanced time perspective (59.69%)

Cluster 2. Balanced time perspective (40.31%)

Past-negative

5.18

0.02

0.14

-0.20

Past-positive

17.58

0.00

-0.28

0.41

Present-fatalistic

25.56

0.00

0.35

-0.52

Present-hedonistic

10.28

0.00

-0.22

0.32

146.33

0.00

-0.62

0.92

Future

117

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Firstly, the BTP effects on the amount of

4.5.

Discussion and conclusions

free time available on weekdays and Sundays were evaluated using t-tests.

This chapter has reviewed theoretical

The non-BTP group spent more time (p

models derived from consumer behaviour

< 0.05) pursuing leisure activities on

(Bergadaà, 1990; Cotte & Ratneshwar,

weekdays (4.89 hours on average) and

2000, 2003; Davies & Omer, 1996) to

Sundays (7.29 hours on average) than

propose and test an integrated model that

the BTP group (3.69 and 6.52 hours on

analyses how TPs (past-negative, past-

average, respectively).

positive,

present-fatalistic,

present-

hedonistic, and future) and having a BTP Secondly, the scores obtained by the

have an influence on the amount of free

BTP group for four of the five leisure

time available, the leisure benefits that

benefits sought

to be

individuals seek, and how often people

significantly higher than those of the non-

spend time on different leisure activities.

BTP group: sociability (Mnon-BTP = 3.83,

From an academic point of view, the

MBTP = 4.17, t = -4.31, p = 0.00); physical

findings of this study shed light on the

fitness (Mnon-BTP = 3.52, MBTP = 3.84, t = -

role of TP in leisure choices, which is a

2.85, p = 0.00); learning and competence

relevant contribution when bearing in

testing (Mnon-BTP = 3.98, MBTP = 4.27, t =

mind the scarcity of empirical research on

-4.00, p= 0.00); and spirituality (Mnon-BTP

this topic (Philipp, 1992; Shores, 2005;

= 2.93, MBTP = 3.19, t = -2.11, p = 0.04).

Shores

No significant differences were found in

contribution is that, in spite of the

the case of risk taking (Mnon-BTP = 3.46,

growing interest in the field of positive

MBTP = 3.43, t = 0.23, p = 0.82).

psychology as regards associating a BTP

were found

&

Scott,

2007).

A

further

with positive outcomes for individuals Thirdly, the frequency of engaging in

(e.g. subjective well-being) (Boniwell,

22 of the 25 activities was similar in

2012), no previous study has examined

both

were

the relationship between a BTP and

significant differences between the non-

leisure choices. The main conclusions

BTP and BTP groups as regards going out

obtained in this chapter are as follows.

for

groups.

a

However,

drink

10,584.50,

(Mann-Whitney =

-2.21,

p

=

U

=

0.03),

First, with regard to the relationship

nightlife (Mann-Whitney U = 9489, z = -

between TPs and the amount of free

3.58, p = 0.00), and resting and time

time available, our findings are similar

out (Mann-Whitney U = 9588, z = -3.46,

to those of Shores (2005). We can

p = 0.00). Non-BTP group engaged in

therefore conclude that the future TP is

these leisure activities more often than

associated with less free time on both

BTP group did.

weekdays

118

z

there

and

Sundays,

while

the

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION present-hedonistic

a

time owing to the high demands that they

positive effect on the amount of hours

daily impose upon themselves in their

spent

on

work or studies. Whatever the case may

weekdays. Lens, Paixão, Herrera, and

be, the results obtained have allowed us

Grobler (2012, p. 330) have recently

to

hypothesised that future TP ‘may have

understand time is a key predictor of why

less important consequences for leisure

they engage in leisure activities.

pursuing

perspective leisure

has

activities

reach

a

conclusion:

how

people

and social life than for educational and vocational

activities’.

However,

our

Thirdly, some interesting conclusions

results show that this is not the case,

have been reached after analysing the

since being future-oriented is one of the

results

most important predictors in the amount

relationship between TPs and leisure

of free time available, which is a key

activities.

obtained

as

regards

the

aspect in leisure. On the one hand, it is noted that the With regard to the second objective,

past-positive TP is directly associated

which

with the frequency of participation in a

is

between

related TPs

to

and

the

relationship

leisure

benefits

greater

number

of

activities.

It

is

sought, it is possible to summarise the

positively related to six of the 25 leisure

findings obtained as follows: past-positive

activities, some of which may evoke the

TP is strongly associated with sociability;

past (e.g. listening to music and the

future TP is intensively related to physical

radio, or reading books) or are activities

fitness, and learning and competence

that involve the creation and maintenance

testing; and present-hedonistic TP is a

of social networks (e.g. talking on the

key predictor of risk taking. These results

phone

are

services).

completely

features

of

coherent

each

TP:

with

the

past-positive

and

and

and

associated

reward);

and

present-

instant

messaging

Next,

the

present

perspectives

(friendliness); future (conscientiousness seeking

using (i.e.

present-hedonistic

present-fatalistic) with

five

are

positively

activities.

Both

hedonistic (novelty seeker). However, it is

present orientations are associated with

striking that past-positive (happy and

watching TV, as was also reported by Epel

without past regrets) is not associated

et al. (1999); meanwhile, the present-

with spirituality, and that future is the

hedonistic

only TP that is, albeit weakly, connected

shopping, as we expected based on

with this leisure benefit. This could be

previous studies (Karande & Merchant,

explained by the fact that future-oriented

2012).

people have a greater need to disconnect

associated with reading newspapers, and

and seek spiritual benefits in their free

would thus appear to be a TP that reduces

perspective

Future

TP is

is

related

to

only positively

119

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN the frequency of participation in certain

amount of free time available is not

leisure activities (e.g. listening to the

similar to that of non-BTP group, since the

radio and music, resting and time out,

former has less free time than the latter

playing a musical instrument, or playing

on

video games or online games). The

However,

results obtained as regards future TP are

importance on four of the five benefits

opposite to those obtained by Philipp

(sociability, physical fitness, learning and

(1992), who found that future-oriented

competence

people

leisure

while there is no difference in the case of

activities more frequently than other

case of risk taking. Perhaps the capacity

individuals. Two possible explanations for

that BTP group has to adapt to different

this may be that: (1) more than 20 years

situations may be the reason why these

have

(1992)

people are prepared to recognise the

published his work, which may have

various benefits derived from each of the

influenced leisure preferences and the

leisure activities that they pursue. BTP

types of activities pursued; and (2) there

and non-BTP groups participate in almost

are significant differences between the

all leisure activities to a similar extent,

methods

(e.g.

with the exception of going out for a

sample sizes, how the variables were

drink, nightlife, and resting and time out.

measured, or the statistical techniques

These three activities are pursued to a

used). Past-negative is not positively

lesser extent by BTP group.

tend

elapsed

used

to

seek

since

in

many

Philipp

both

studies

both

weekdays BTP

and

group

testing,

Sundays.

places

and

more

spirituality),

related to the frequency of participation in any leisure activity.

The conclusions drawn in the previous paragraph allow us, in part, to refine

On the other hand, it should be stressed

those obtained by Shores y Scott (2007),

that 10 of the 25 activities are related (be

who

it positively or negatively) to more than

future orientations are healthy TPs for

one

shaping our free time. Based on the

TP.

For

example,

past-positive,

consider

that

empirical

TPs

with

having a BTP is what guarantees a more

watching TV. Perhaps each TP differs from

adequate and healthy enjoyment of

each other in the type of TV programs

leisure. In fact, it is probable that this

watched. This suggests that TP not only

capacity to make the most of one’s leisure

influences the decision to engage in a

time (independently of whether one has

leisure activity, but also its content.

more or less free time) is one of the

positively

associated

presented

and

present-fatalistic and present-hedonistic are

evidence

past-positive

here,

reason why numerous previous studies With regard to the fourth objective,

have

unlike what was expected, BTP group’s

between having a BTP and subjective

120

reported

a

direct

relationship

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION well-being.

A

considerable

BTP

therefore

potential

for

offers

frequently used by the TP in question. For

practical

example, advertising in newspapers and

interventions in leisure education or

magazines might

counselling. The focus of leisure time

effective when targeting a public with a

management

develop

future TP, while advertising in social

interventions based on an understanding

networks might be more appropriate as

of people’s TP biases that unconsciously

regards transmitting messages that are

dominate their lives and leisure time.

intended

These techniques may be useful to attain

audience. We can therefore state that TPs

a BTP and for solving the dilemmas of a

are valuable segmentation criteria for

work-leisure

marketers.

techniques

balance

can

(Boniwell

&

for

prove to be

a

more

present-hedonistic

Zimbardo, 2003). The BTP group is also an attractive segment for leisure service

In interpreting the results of this study,

providers. The fact that individuals with

several

a BTP are more likely to seek a large

considered. The first set of them is

number of leisure benefits makes them a

related to the fact that TPs in this

target market when launching new leisure

research have been conceptualised and

products/services, since it is probable

operationalized as personality traits, as

that they will capture the additional

was done in almost all previous studies

benefits that these provides more quickly.

(Guignard, 2014).

limitations

should

Apostolidis, This

&

be

Demarque,

individual-differences

Two important practical implications

approach to TPs thus presents interesting

have also been derived from our synthesis

results regarding TP outcomes in the

of the findings shown in Table 4.11.

amount of free time available, benefits

Firstly, leisure-related

businesses can

sought and leisure activities. However,

obtain information about which leisure

TPs can also be studied from two other

products are more or less appropriate for

points of view that are different from

each

that of personality traits.

TP.

For

example,

past-positive

oriented people seek benefits related to sociability

along

with

competence

testing,

therefore

target

a

publishing industries, companies.

groups, or

learning

and

On

are

Western societies, future TP subscale

book

might be a normative construct (i.e.

music

people may present themselves as having

telephone

high future TP if they seek to gain

and

they

market

for

radio mobile

Secondly,

and

companies

the

one

hand,

in

contemporary

can

approval and, on the whole, people

create advertising messages that are

attribute more value to the high future TP

adapted to each TP and emit them using

target than the low one) (Guignard et al.,

the means of communication that is most

2014).

121

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Table 4.11. Synthesis of findings: the role of time perspective in leisure choices.

Leisure choices AMOUNT OF FREE TIME AVAILABLE ON… Weekdays Sundays LEISURE BENEFITS SOUGHT Sociability Physical fitness Learning and competence testing Spirituality Risk taking FREQUENCY OF ENGAGING IN LEISURE ACTIVITIES Reading comics Shopping Nightlife Watching TV Reading books (printed or eBooks) Surfing the Internet Listening to the radio and music Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services Using social networks Sports Travel and tourism Attending concerts Attending sporting events Playing a musical instrument Attending the theatre or similar activities Collaborating with associations Going to the cinema Going for a walk Watching online videos Resting and time out Playing video games or online games Going out for a drink Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online) Going to restaurants Visiting museums and art galleries

Pastnegative

Time perspectives PastPresentPresentpositive fatalistic hedonistic

Future

+

+ +

-

Balanced time perspective

-

-

+ +

+ +

+

+

+

+

-

-

+ -

+ +

+ +

+

+ +

-

+

-

+ + + + +

+ -

-

+ +

-

-

-

-

+

On the other hand, although Zimbardo

2014) may change individuals’ TPs

and Boyd (1999) point out that a TP may

and

become a relatively stable dispositional

Interestingly, Shavit et al. (2014) show

characteristic, recent research findings

that a risky activity (e.g. skydiving)

suggest that environmental factors

affects TP (i.e. people become present-

(Lahav, Benzion, & Shavit, 2011) or risky

oriented) even when people voluntarily

activities (Shavit, Rosenboim, & Shani,

choose to engage in the activity and also

122

consequently

their

actions.

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION when the activity is limited in time and

from

does not require long-term engagement.

further constraint is that the sample is

This

from

suggests

should

use

that

future

experimental

research

a

population

Western

samples.

cultural

A

context:

to

Spain. Research by Hofstede et al. (2010)

analyse to what extent engaging in a

highlight how cultures differ in their time

leisure activity may affect an individual’s

orientation (long-term versus short-term

TP. For example, our results have shown

orientation). These authors have found

that

present-

differences between societies with a long-

hedonistic orientation go shopping more

term orientation, which focus on fostering

frequently, while those with greater past-

future rewards, particularly perseverance

positive

frequently

and thrift; and countries with a short-

engage in activities such as listening to

term orientation, which focus on fostering

the radio and music or reading books. It

virtues related to the past and present, in

would

particular,

students

with

orientation

be

designs

general

greater

more

interesting

to

conduct

respect

for

tradition,

experiments in order to analyse whether

preservation of ‘face’, and fulfilling social

shopping or listening to the radio and

obligations.

The

four

music might modify individuals’ TPs, thus

countries

as

regards

making people more oriented towards

orientation are East Asian (South Korea,

present-hedonistic

past-positive,

Taiwan, Japan and China), and with three

respectively, after having participated in

exceptions (Malaysia, Thailand, and the

these two activities. Future research of

Philippines), all the other South and

this type may help towards a better

Southeast Asian countries appear in the

understanding of which leisure activity

top half of the table (Hofstede et al.,

characteristics can be associated with

2010). Consequently, future research

each TP.

directions could include how TPs affects

or

highest-scoring long-term

leisure choices in East Asian countries and The second set of limitations concerns

cross-cultural

the sample used in this study: a sample

Western versus East Asian cultures).

of

320

Although

Spanish the

university

use

of

a

comparisons

(e.g.

students. relatively

Thirdly, when interpreting the results it

homogeneous sample of students is

is necessary to bear in mind that the

suitable for an exploratory study, and

explanatory power of some models is

while some of the studies reviewed used

relatively low (see Tables 4.5 to 4.7) and

smaller samples (e.g. Epel et al., 1999;

that some leisure activities are never

Karande & Merchant, 2012; Lukavska,

pursued by the vast majority of the

2012; Philipp, 1992), it would be valuable

sample (e.g. reading comics, playing a

to evaluate whether the results presented

musical

here are consistent with those derived

concerts) (see Appendix D). The extent

instrument,

or

attending

123

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN of an individual’s involvement in leisure activities may be influenced by a large number of factors and constraints (Ajzen & Driver, 1991; Godbey, Crawford, & Shen, 2010), some of which have not been considered in this research. Some alternative relationships could also be considered. For example, it is possible that the amount of free time available and leisure benefits sought are mediating variables in the relationship between TPs and leisure activities. That is to say, it could be argued that, in the first stage, TPs determine the amount of free time available and leisure benefits sought, and that these variables may in turn influence the frequency of participation in one type of leisure activity or another. These relationships incorporating

can

only

indirect

be

tested

effects

in

by our

model, but it is obvious that further theoretical development is necessary. Finally, despite the fact that using the ZTPI has allowed us to explore the relationships between five TPs and having a BTP and leisure choices in great detail, recent studies also reveal the possibility of qualitatively different versions of future orientation (Spears & Amos, 2012) or a future-negative orientation (Andretta, Worrell, & Mello, 2014). In future studies it would be interesting to analyse

the

role

of

these

different

versions of future orientation in leisure choices.

124

CHAPTER 5.

conclusions

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS

relevancia que el tiempo tiene a la hora de analizar el comportamiento humano, éste ha sido mucho menos estudiado en marketing que en otras áreas. Una vez

El punto de partida de esta tesis doctoral

identificados los huecos de investigación

ha consistido en presentar una visión

existentes, los tres estudios empíricos

general

realizados dentro de esta tesis doctoral

del

estado

investigación

actual

sobre

el

de

la

tópico

del

(Capítulos

2-4)

se

han

centrado

en

tiempo, centrada tanto en los aspectos

mostrar la utilidad que los aspectos

objetivos como subjetivos, en distintas

temporales

disciplinas

comprender

(economía,

psicología,

sociología,

concretamente,

en

comportamiento

educación,

etc.) el

y,

más

ámbito

del

del

tienen el

a

la

hora

de

comportamiento

del

consumidor y segmentar el mercado. De esta

forma,

las

tres

investigaciones

consumidor.

empíricas han incluido: una aproximación

Partiendo de esta revisión de la literatura

a los estilos de vida utilizando mediciones

(Capítulo 1), se han identificado cuatro

del uso del tiempo dedicado a diferentes

líneas

en

actividades (Estudio 1); una evaluación

comportamiento del consumidor sobre los

de la eficacia del uso del tiempo como

aspectos

del

criterio de segmentación en el ámbito del

tiempo. La primera se encuadra dentro de

marketing turístico (Estudio 2); y un

los

de

análisis exploratorio de la influencia que

y

las TPs tienen en las decisiones de ocio

considera el tiempo como un recurso

(Estudio 3). Además, en cada uno de

disponible por el individuo y, por tanto,

estos capítulos, se ha realizado una

como un factor que influye en las distintas

revisión crítica de la literatura previa y se

etapas

han

de

investigación

objetivos

y

modelos

comportamiento

del

subjetivos

generales del

proceso

consumidor

de

decisión

de

destacado

compra. La segunda se circunscribe a la

contribuciones

denominada

profesionales.

como

psicología

de

las

las

principales

académicas

y

esperas. La tercera se centra en analizar las diferencias en la valoración del tiempo

El primer estudio (Capítulo 2) ha

y el dinero por parte de los consumidores.

mostrado el enorme potencial que las

Y,

la

encuestas de empleo del tiempo tienen a

influencia de la TP (time perspective)

la hora de identificar y describir los

sobre las actitudes y comportamientos de

estilos de vida de los consumidores.

los consumidores.

Aunque

finalmente,

la

cuarta

evalúa

este

información

tipo han

de sido

fuentes

de

ampliamente

A partir de esta revisión de la literatura se

utilizadas en el ámbito de la sociología,

ha concluido también que, a pesar de la

muy

pocos

estudios

dentro

del

127

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN comportamiento

han

por Anderson y Golden (1984), quienes

la

diferencian claramente entre estilos de

heterogeneidad en el uso del tiempo

vida (entendidos, exclusivamente, como

como una posible aproximación a la

patrones de conducta manifiesta) y

segmentación por estilos de vida. En esta

psicografía o estilo cognitivo (que incluiría

primera

los intereses y opiniones).

recurrido

a

del

ellas

consumidor para

aplicación

analizar

empírica

se

han

utilizado los datos procedentes de la Encuesta de Empleo del Tiempo del

Otra contribución de este trabajo, desde

Instituto

el punto de vista de la política social, se

Nacional

de

Estadística

de

España, recogidos entre el 1 de octubre

encuentra

de 2009 y el 30 de septiembre de 2010,

identificado: (1) que dos de los tres

para identificar nueve segmentos o

grupos de mayor tamaño son segmentos

grupos de consumidores españoles

con poco tiempo libre durante los fines

según su forma de usar el tiempo

de semana; y (2) que el segundo de estos

durante

tres

los

fines

de

semana.

en

grupos,

el

el

hecho

formado

de

haber

por

los

Ordenados de mayor a menor tamaño, los

denominados como dormilones y ociosos,

nueve grupos identificados han sido los

aunque sí podría catalogarse como un

siguientes:

y

segmento de ricos en términos de tiempo

ociosos, trabajadores de fin de semana,

libre, está integrado por sujetos que

entusiastas de la lectura y la radio/música

dedican buena parte de ese tiempo al

durante su tiempo libre, manitas del

ocio pasivo (por ejemplo, pasan más de

bricolaje, aficionados al arte con bastante

tres horas viendo la TV y vídeos). Estos

tiempo libre, comprometidos con los

hallazgos siguieren la necesidad de un

cuidados

y

análisis y debate más profundo, ya que el

mezcladores de ocio y estudios. Estos

tiempo de ocio durante los fines de

grupos son diferentes entre sí, no sólo en

semana tiene un gran impacto en el

su

bienestar emocional de las personas.

domésticos,

familiares,

propensión

a

dormilones

eclécticos,

participar

en

cada

actividad y el tiempo asignado a ésta (qué),

sino

también

en

sus

perfiles

Además, la información sobre los ritmos

sociodemográficos (quién) y ritmos de

de actividad es realmente valiosa para las

actividad (cuándo).

empresas relacionadas con el sector del ocio. En este sentido, la investigación

Este primer estudio es relevante desde un

presentada en esta tesis doctoral ayuda a

punto de vista académico, ya que ha

este tipo de negocios a la hora de tomar

propuesto efectuar el análisis de los

decisiones sobre cómo organizar sus

estilos de vida recurriendo a datos de uso

propuestas o actividades de ocio

del

se

durante los fines de semana (tanto en

enmarcaría dentro de la línea propuesta

términos de duración como de horario),

128

tiempo.

Esta

contribución

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION teniendo en cuenta el perfil específico de

Desde un punto de vista académico, el

consumidores que deseen atraer.

segundo trabajo presentado en esta tesis doctoral

El

objetivo

segundo

una

contribución

estudio

innovadora para el marketing turístico,

(Capítulo 3) ha consistido en evaluar

ya que no se ha encontrado ningún

empíricamente la utilidad del uso del

estudio empírico previo en este ámbito

tiempo como criterio de segmentación de

que proponga la utilización del uso del

los visitantes en un destino turístico. En

tiempo

la revisión de la literatura de este capítulo

segmentación.

se han

del

supone

identificado

como

criterio

de

distintas razones

(tales como, la existencia de cierto grado

Adicionalmente, el tamaño y perfil de

de planificación o de un número limitado

los

de actividades alternativas a realizar en el

diferencias

destino) que permiten argumentar que

variables

los visitantes no son arbitrarios a la hora

intenciones de comportamiento futuras)

de decidir cómo usan su tiempo durante

proporciona información útil para que las

su estancia en el mismo y que, por tanto,

organizaciones

en este contexto ‘el tiempo es oro’. Los

configurar las actividades que se ofrecen

resultados obtenidos a partir de los datos

en el destino. Entre las implicaciones

procedentes de 799 visitantes en la

prácticas que se han obtenido cabe

ciudad de Toledo han permitido identificar

destacar

cuatro segmentos de excursionistas

necesidad

(fugaces y compradores, motivados por la

estrategias de promoción del destino,

cultura,

ya

callejeros,

y

guiados

e

grupos

identificados entre

de

dos.

que

de

ellos

resultado

y

primer

reflexionar

éste

está

las

en

las

(gasto

empresas

En

y

e

puedan

lugar, sobre

la las

atrayendo

hiperactivos) y otros cuatro de turistas

principalmente a un grupo de turistas

(callejeros, motivados por la cultura y el

callejeros que no generan ingresos para

descanso,

e

la ciudad (tienen poco valor actual en

hiperactivos). Además, también se ha

términos de gasto) y tampoco parecen

encontrado que los diferentes segmentos

muy útiles a la hora de generar valor en

identificados según el tiempo dedicado a

el futuro (no son los que tienen mayor

la

se

probabilidad de recomendar o revisitar el

diferencian en el dinero gastado en

destino). En segundo lugar, el estudio

distintas partidas y en las intenciones

también ha puesto de manifiesto lo

de recomendar el destino, en los casos

perjudicial que puede resultar, para la

de excursionistas y turistas; y en las

posición competitiva futura del destino,

intenciones de volver a visitar la

seguir

ciudad

relacionados con las visitas guiadas,

guiados,

realización

en

turistas.

el

de

y

noctámbulos

cada

futuro,

actividad

en

el

de

los

incentivando

los

servicios

ya que los excursionistas y turistas que

129

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN dedican más tiempo a esta actividad son

cuarto lugar, una mayor orientación hacia

los que menor probabilidad tienen de

el presente hedonista se traduce en una

recomendar el destino.

mayor cantidad de tiempo libre disponible a diario, una elevada propensión a la

Finalmente, el tercer estudio (Capítulo

búsqueda de beneficios relacionados con

4)

(pasado

la toma de riesgos y una mayor frecuencia

presente

de realización de ciertas actividades como

fatalista, presente hedonista y futuro) y el

ir de compras, utilizar las redes sociales,

hecho de tener una BTP (balanced time

o ver vídeos o películas online. En quinto

perspective) con las decisiones de ocio

lugar, estar orientado al futuro se asocia

(en términos de cantidad de tiempo libre

con una menor cantidad de tiempo libre,

disponible, beneficios buscados con el

tanto a diario como durante los fines de

ocio

de

semana, conduce a una búsqueda más

Los

intensa de beneficios relacionados con el

resultados obtenidos a partir de una

aprendizaje y la adquisición de nuevas

muestra de 320 estudiantes de Grado y

competencias durante el ocio, y actúa,

Máster de la UCLM han arrojado luz sobre

principalmente,

el papel de la TP en las decisiones de

inhibidor para la realización de un gran

ocio. Concretamente, en primer lugar, se

número de actividades de este tipo.

ha encontrado que estar orientado al

Finalmente, en sexto lugar, los hallazgos

pasado

del estudio han permitido concluir que el

ha

relacionado

negativo,

y

pasado

frecuencia

diferentes

las

positivo,

de

actividades

negativo

inversamente realización

de

con

TPs

realización de

ocio).

se la

relaciona

frecuencia

actividades

como

de leer

como

un

elemento

hecho de tener una BTP garantiza un disfrute más adecuado del ocio.

comics, ir de compras o salir de fiesta por la

noche.

una

La TP ha sido ampliamente estudiada en

positivo

el ámbito de la psicología y también

redunda, principalmente, en la búsqueda

existen investigaciones previas que la

de

la

relacionan con diferentes actitudes y

sociabilidad durante el tiempo libre y se

comportamientos hacia la publicidad, las

asocia directamente con la frecuencia de

compras,

realización

ecológicos,

orientación

En

segundo

hacia

beneficios

de

el

lugar,

pasado

relacionados

actividades

con

como

leer

el

consumo

etc.

productos

embargo,

el

ámbito

wasapear. En tercer lugar, la orientación

consumidor, escasas investigaciones

hacia el presente fatalista se relaciona

cuantitativas han analizado el papel de

directamente,

una

la orientación temporal en las decisiones

de

de ocio con un nivel de detalle como el

actividades vinculadas con ir a conciertos

presentado en el tercer trabajo de esta

o tocar algún instrumento musical. En

tesis

mayor

130

frecuencia

ejemplo, de

con

realización

doctoral.

comportamiento

en

libros, hablar por teléfono, escribir SMS o

por

del

Sin

de

Más

del

concretamente,

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION ningún trabajo previo ha relacionado el

mercados. A pesar de las limitaciones de

hecho

las

los tres trabajos empíricos presentados,

decisiones de los consumidores en este

esta tesis abre nuevas e interesantes

ámbito.

las

líneas para futuras investigaciones que,

contribuciones académicas de este

sin duda, son susceptibles de contribuir a

cuarto

una

de

tener

Por

una

estas

capítulo

BTP

dos

con

razones,

también

pueden

ser

calificadas como significativas.

mejor

comprensión

del

comportamiento de los consumidores.

Adicionalmente, los hallazgos del estudio han sugerido importantes implicaciones prácticas para la educación del ocio y el tiempo libre, al permitir poner en marcha

programas

entrenamiento

que

educativos orienten

y a

de los

individuos hacia TPs que permitan un disfrute más sano del ocio. En el ámbito empresarial, las implicaciones para los negocios relacionados con el ocio también son claras. En este sentido, esta última investigación ha proporcionado información a estas empresas acerca de los productos de ocio que son más o menos

apropiados

para

cada

TP.

Además, facilita la creación de mensajes publicitarios adaptados a cada TP que sean emitidos a través de los medios de comunicación

utilizados

con

mayor

frecuencia por la TP en cuestión. Teniendo en cuenta estas implicaciones prácticas es posible concluir que las TPs son bases de

segmentación

valiosas

para

las

empresas de ocio. Por tanto, esta tesis doctoral ha realizado una aportación notable en la investigación de los aspectos objetivos y subjetivos del tiempo en relación con el comportamiento del consumidor y la segmentación de

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APPENDIX A: PROPENSITY TO ENGAGE IN EACH ACTIVITY WITHIN CLUSTERS OF SPANISH CONSUMERS

1. Necessary time

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

Cluster 4. Book and radio/musi c lovers during leisure time (9.10%) 100.00%

Sleeping

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

Eating and drinking

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

Other personal care

96.70%

94.79%

95.36%

100.00%

97.40%

2. Contracted time

0.00%

23.29%

Employment

0.00%

0.00%

Study

0.00%

23.29%

Travel related to employment and study 3. Committed time

0.00%

0.00%

100.00%

59.45%

Indicator (incidence rates)

Cluster 1. Cluster 2. People who Sleepyhead pursue s and domestic couch activities potatoes (35.81%) (17.20%)

Cluster 3. Weekend workers (13.14%)

Cluster 5. DIY handypeople (7.27%) 100.00%

76.79%

0.52%

25.97%

73.21%

0.52%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

25.97%

56.79%

0.00%

0.00%

94.27%

100.00%

77.50%

Household management

15.96%

0.00%

0.00%

Food management

84.04%

43.29%

56.79%

80.73%

49.35%

Household upkeep

68.60%

44.11%

38.57%

68.23%

53.25%

Making and care of textiles

42.08%

0.00%

12.50%

34.90%

Gardening and pet care

19.79%

0.00%

13.93%

3.13%

49.35%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

33.12%

Shopping and services

49.74%

0.00%

33.57%

47.92%

48.05%

Childcare

26.78%

0.00%

28.21%

25.52%

1.30%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

12.50%

0.00%

Volunteer work and meetings

25.59%

0.00%

0.00%

Travel related to committed activities 4. Leisure time

52.24%

0.00%

27.86%

99.34%

100.00%

95.71%

Social life

53.83%

49.86%

43.57%

64.06%

0.00%

11.78%

24.64%

24.48%

Resting and time out

21.37%

20.27%

28.93%

26.04%

23.38%

Sports and outdoor activities

55.41%

49.59%

36.79%

55.73%

46.75%

Construction and repairs

Adult household care

Entertainment and culture

Arts Computing Games

0.00% 17.81% 0.00%

0.00% 35.62%

0.00%

30.73% 56.77% 100.00%

0.00%

5.84%

6.49% 44.81% 100.00% 47.40% 0.65%

0.00%

0.00%

15.71%

17.71%

38.31% 39.61%

21.10%

0.00%

38.02%

0.00%

Reading

34.70%

24.66%

18.57%

47.40%

32.47%

Watching TV and videos

93.27%

88.77%

80.36%

90.10%

91.56%

Listening to radio and music Travel related to leisure activities and other unspecified time

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

45.31%

0.00%

54.09%

61.10%

55.36%

72.92%

61.69%

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN APPENDIX A: PROPENSITY TO ENGAGE IN EACH ACTIVITY WITHIN CLUSTERS OF SPANISH CONSUMERS (CONTINUED)

Cluster 6. Art lovers with quite a lot of leisure time (4.79%) 100.00%

Cluster 7. People committed to caring for relatives (4.50%) 100.00%

Sleeping

100.00%

Eating and drinking

100.00%

Other personal care

Indicator (incidence rates)

1. Necessary time

Cluster 8. Eclectics (4.30%)

Cluster 9. People who mix leisure time and studies (3.89%)

Total

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

100.00%

95.05%

97.89%

100.00%

96.34%

96.65%

2. Contracted time

3.96%

57.89%

71.43%

48.78%

23.84%

Employment

3.96%

53.68%

38.46%

0.00%

13.98%

Study

0.00%

0.00%

37.36%

48.78%

Travel related to employment and study 3. Committed time

0.00%

37.89%

47.25%

0.00%

11.24%

93.07%

100.00%

87.91%

89.02%

88.24%

Household management

35.64%

28.42%

14.29%

24.39%

10.25%

Food management

79.21%

77.89%

65.93%

43.90%

67.75%

Household upkeep

59.41%

66.32%

59.34%

54.88%

57.79%

Making and care of textiles

41.58%

35.79%

36.26%

19.51%

26.20%

Gardening and pet care

29.70%

22.11%

16.48%

6.10%

16.15%

9.89%

17.07%

5.43%

Construction and repairs Shopping and services Childcare

9.40%

0.00%

43.16%

22.77%

40.00%

28.57%

42.68%

35.84%

0.00%

40.00%

40.66%

1.22%

19.31%

Adult household care

19.80%

0.00%

20.88%

0.00%

2.97%

Volunteer work and meetings

15.84%

41.05%

17.58%

23.17%

16.67%

Travel related to committed activities 4. Leisure time

24.75%

55.79%

32.97%

40.24%

37.44%

99.01%

96.84%

100.00%

98.78%

98.96%

Social life

62.38%

53.68%

52.75%

51.22%

52.50%

Entertainment and culture

0.00%

0.00%

16.48%

42.68%

9.92%

Resting and time out

17.82%

16.84%

19.78%

31.71%

22.71%

Sports and outdoor activities

52.48%

34.74%

30.77%

53.66%

49.15%

Arts

44.55%

0.00%

18.68%

29.27%

Computing

26.73%

20.00%

26.37%

43.90%

23.98%

Games

34.65%

0.00%

26.37%

20.73%

13.55%

Reading

40.59%

32.63%

23.08%

31.71%

31.40%

Watching TV and videos

89.11%

83.16%

80.22%

74.39%

88.43%

Listening to radio and music

16.83%

9.47%

17.58%

31.71%

7.32%

Travel related to leisure activities and other unspecified time

48.51%

55.79%

60.44%

73.17%

160

4.06%

58.55%

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION APPENDIX B: LIST OF EMPIRICAL STUDIES ON TOURISM MARKET SEGMENTATION PUBLISHED BETWEEN 2008 AND 2012. TOURISM JOURNALS INDEXED IN 2011 JOURNAL CITATION REPORT SOCIAL SCIENCES EDITION®

Author (Year) Brida, Bukstein, Garrido, and Tealde (2012) Bronner and de Hoog (2012) Chen and Lin (2012) Chiang (2012) do Valle, Pintassilgo, Matias, and André (2012) Dolnicar, Yanamandram, and Cliff (2012) Figini and Vici (2012) Figueiredo, Eusébio, and Kastenholz (2012) Harrington, Ottenbacher, Staggs, and Powell (2012) Herrero, Sanz, Bedate, and del Barrio (2012) Kim and Ritchie (2012)

Title of article Cruise passengers' expenditure in the Caribbean port of call of Cartagena de Indias: A cross-section data analysis Economizing strategies during an economic crisis Segmenting mainland Chinese tourists to Taiwan by destination familiarity: A factor-cluster approach Applying a new model of customer value on international air passengers' market in Taiwan Tourist attitudes towards an accommodation tax earmarked for environmental protection: A survey in the Algarve

Journal name TE ATR IJTR IJTR TM ATR

The contribution of vacations to quality of life Off-season tourists and the cultural offer of a mass-tourism destination: The case of Rimini How diverse are tourists with disabilities? A pilot study on accessible leisure tourism experiences in Portugal Generation Y consumers: Key restaurant attributes affecting positive and negative experiences Who pays more for a cultural festival, tourists or locals? A Certainty analysis of a contingent valuation application Motivation-based typology: An empirical study of golf tourists

TM IJTR JHTR IJTR JHTR

Landauer, Pröbstl, and Haider (2012) Lew and Ng (2012)

Managing cross-country skiing destinations under the conditions of climate change - Scenarios for destinations in Austria and Finland Using quantile regression to understand visitor spending

Masiero and Nicolau (2012) Masiero and Nicolau (2012) Nicolau (2012)

Tourism market segmentation based on price sensitivity: Finding similar price preferences on tourism activities Price sensitivity to tourism activities: Looking for determinant factors Asymmetric tourist response to price: Loss aversion segmentation

JTR

Prayag (2012)

Paradise for who? Segmenting visitors' satisfaction with cognitive image and predicting behavioural loyalty Visitor attendance motivations at consumer travel exhibitions

IJTR

Determinants of spending: An evaluation of three major sporting events

IJTR

Testing heterogeneous image in cultural/non-cultural tourism markets: A latent model approach Assessing the viability of university alumni as a repeat visitor market

IJTR

Evaluation of segment attractiveness by risk-adjusted market potential: First-time vs. repeat visitors Nationality as a segmentation criterion in tourism research: The case of international tourists' expenditures while on trips in Norway Psychographic insights from a South Carolina protected area

JTR

Rittichainuwat and Mair (2012) Saayman and Saayman (2012) Sánchez and Pulido (2012) Schofield and Fallon (2012) Shani, Reichel, and Croes (2012) Thrane and Farstad (2012) Weaver (2012) Wong and Rosenbaum (2012) Xiao-Ting and Bi-Hu (2012) Zakrisson and Zillinger (2012) Alegre, Cladera, and Sard (2011) Alegre, Mateo, and Pou (2011) Barquet, Brida, Osti, and Schubert (2011) Bojanic (2011)

Beyond hardcore gambling: Understanding why mainland Chinese visit casinos in Macau Intra-attraction tourist spatial-temporal behaviour patterns

TM JTR JTR TE

TM

TM

TE TM JHTR TG

Emotions in motion: Tourist experiences in time and space

CIT

Analysing the influence of tourist motivations on tourist expenditure at a sun-and-sand destination A latent class approach to tourists’ length of stay

TE

An analysis of tourists' expenditure on winter sports events through the Tobit censorate model The impact of age and family life experiences on Mexican visitor shopping expenditures

TM TE TM

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JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN Choi (2011) Dolnicar, Grabler, Grün, and Kulnig (2011) Ene and Schofield (2011) Fuchs and Reichel (2011) Hyde and Harman (2011)

Implicit prices for longer temporary exhibitions in a heritage site and a test of preference heterogeneity: A segmentation-based approach Key drivers of airline loyalty An integrated approach to consumer decision making for budget city breaks: The role of emotion An exploratory inquiry into destination risk perceptions and risk reduction strategies of first time vs. repeat visitors to a highly volatile destination Motives for a secular pilgrimage to the Gallipoli battlefields

TM TM IJTR TM TM

Kattiyapornpong and Miller (2011) Kim, Kim, Gazzol, Park, Kim, and Park (2011) Kim, Timothy, and Hwang (2011) Konu, Laukkanen, and Komppula (2011) Kruger,Saayman, and Ellis (2011) Lo, McKercher, Lo, Cheung, and Law (2011) Mair (2011)

Social structure and psychographic explanations of destination preference of Australians' travel to South-East Asia Factors affecting the travel expenditure of visitors to Macau, China

Exploring air travellers' voluntary carbon-offsetting behaviour

JST

Moeller, Dolnicar, and Leisch (2011) Needham, Rollins, Ceurvorst, Wood, Grimm, and Dearden (2011) Nicolau (2011)

The sustainability-profitability trade-off in tourism: Can it be overcome?

JST

Motivations and normative evaluations of summer visitors at an alpine ski area

JTR

Differentiated price loss aversion in destination choice: The effect of tourists’ cultural interest Why do visitors go to museums? The case of 921 Earthquake Museum, Wufong, Taichung Demand elasticity estimates for New Zealand tourism

TM

Ryan and Hsu (2011) Schiff and Becken (2011)

Understanding Japanese tourists’ shopping preferences using the Decision Tree Analysis method Using ski destination choice criteria to segment Finnish ski resort customers Segmentation by genres: The case of the Aardklop National Arts Festival Tourism and online photography

Sievänen, Neuvonen, and Pouta (2011) Tangeland (2011)

APJTR TE TM TM IJTR TM

APJTR TM

National park visitor segments and their interest in rural tourism services and intention to revisit Why do people purchase nature-based tourism activity products? A Norwegian case study of outdoor recreation Tangeland and Aas (2011) Household composition and the importance of experience attributes of nature based tourism activity products - A Norwegian case study of outdoor recreationists Weaver and Lawton Visitor loyalty at a private South Carolina protected area (2011) Winter (2011) Battlefield visitor motivations: Explorations in the Great War town of Ieper, Belgium Barbieri and Mahoney Cultural tourism behaviour and preferences among the live-performing (2010) arts audience: An application of the univorous–omnivorous framework Catlin, Jones, Jones, Discovering wildlife tourism: A whale shark tourism case study Norman, and Wood (2010) Collins-Kreiner and Israeli Supporting an integrated soft approach to ecotourism development: (2010) The Agmon Lake, Israel Devesa, Laguna, and The role of motivation in visitor satisfaction: Empirical evidence in rural Palacios (2010) tourism Dey and Sarma (2010) Information source usage among motive-based segments of travelers to newly emerging tourist destinations Dolnicar (2010) Identifying tourists with smaller environmental footprints

SJHT

Gnoth and Zins (2010)

Cultural dimensions and the international tourist role scale: Validation in Asian destinations? Segmentation of different types of Hallyu tourists using a multinomial model and its marketing implications Tourism behaviour in Seoul: An analysis of tourism activity sequence using multidimensional sequence alignments Profiling the segments of visitors to Portuguese protected areas

APJTR

Achieving voluntary reductions in the carbon footprint of tourism and climate change

JST

Kim, Lee, and Chon (2010) Lee and Joh (2010) Marques, Reis, and Menezes (2010) McKercher, Prideaux, Cheung, and Law (2010)

162

SJHT TM JTR IJTR IJTR CIT TG TM TM JST

JHTR TG JST

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION Najmi, Sharbatoghlie, and Tourism market segmentation in Iran Jafarieh (2010) Nimrod and Rotem (2010) Between relaxation and excitement: Activities and benefits gained in retirees' tourism Park and Kim (2010) A comparison of different approaches to segment information search behaviour of spring break travellers in the USA: Experience, knowledge, involvement and specialisation concept Park and Njite (2010) Relationship between destination image and tourists' future behavior: Observations from Jeju Island, Korea Shani, Wang, Hutchinson, Applying expenditure-based segmentation on special-interest tourists: and Lay (2010) The case of golf travelers Xia, Evans, Spilsbury, Market segments based on the dominant movement patterns of tourists Ciesielski, Arrowsmith, and Wright (2010) Choi and Lee (2009) Understanding US traveler behavior to Asian countries: A secondary analysis approach Craggs and Schofield Expenditure-based segmentation and visitor profiling at The Quays in (2009) Salford, UK Gyimothy (2009) Casual observers, connoisseurs and experimentalists: A conceptual exploration of niche festival visitors Park and Yoon (2009) Segmentation by motivation in rural tourism: A Korean case study Roca, Villares, and Ortego (2009) Shuo, Ryan, and Liu (2009) Tchetchik, Fleischer, and Shoval (2009) Correia, Silva, and Moço (2008) Dolnicar and Leisch (2008) Dolnicar and Leisch (2008) Dolnicar, Crouch, Devinney, Huybers, Louviere, and Oppewal (2008) Füller and Matzler (2008)

IJTR IJTR IJTR APJTR JTR TM APJTR TE SJHT TM

Assessing public perceptions on beach quality according to beach users' profile: A case study in the Costa Brava (Spain) Taoism, temples and tourists: The case of Mazu pilgrimage tourism

TM

Segmentation of visitors to a heritage site using high-resolution timespace data Portuguese charter tourists to long-haul destinations: A travel motive segmentation An investigation of tourists' patterns of obligation to protect the environment Selective marketing for environmentally sustainable tourism

JTR

TM

JHTR JTR TM

Tourism and discretionary income allocation. Heterogeneity among households

TM

TM

Kim, Kim, Park, and Guo (2008) Litvin (2008)

Customer delight and market segmentation: An application of the three-factor theory of customer satisfaction on life style groups Cave tourism: Tourists' characteristics, motivations to visit, and the segmentation of their behavior Sensation seeking and its measurement for tourism research

Luo and Deng (2008)

The new environmental paradigm and nature-based tourism motivation

McKercher (2008)

Segment transformation in urban tourism

TM

Pestana, Butler, and Correia (2008) Sedmak and Mihalič (2008) Tan and Lo (2008)

Heterogeneity in destination choice tourism in Africa

JTR

Authenticity in mature seaside resorts

ATR

A benefit-based approach to market segmentation: A case study of an American specialty coffeehouse chain in Hong Kong Destination product characteristics as useful predictors for repeat visiting and recommendation segmentation variables in tourism: A CHAID exhaustive analysis

JHTR

Vassiliadis (2008)

APJTR JTR JTR

IJTR

Notes: ATR: Annals of Tourism Research; APJTR: Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research; CIT: Current Issues in Tourism; IJTR: International Journal of Tourism Research; JHTR: Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research; JST: Journal of Sustainable Tourism; JTCC: Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change; JTR: Journal of Travel Research; SJHT: Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism; TE: Tourism Economics; TG: Tourism Geographies; TM: Tourism Management.

163

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION APPENDIX C: QUESTIONNAIRE ABOUT TIME PERSPECTIVE AND LEISURE (SPANISH)

Mi nombre es Juan Antonio García, soy profesor de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha y estoy realizando un estudio para mi tesis doctoral sobre las actividades de ocio de los estudiantes universitarios. Todos los datos recopilados serán tratados de forma totalmente anónima y no se utilizarán para identificar al encuestado. La cumplimentación de este cuestionario sólo le supondrá 15 minutos. Antes de comenzar a responder es muy importante que tenga presente que no existen respuestas buenas o malas. Por favor, lea con calma las preguntas y responda con total sinceridad a las mismas. Muchas gracias por su colaboración.

1. Piense en sus características personales e indique, por favor, en qué grado cada una de las siguientes

En desacuerdo

Ni en desacuerdo ni de acuerdo

De acuerdo

Totalmente de acuerdo

Pienso a menudo en las cosas malas que me han ocurrido en el pasado Es difícil olvidar las imágenes desagradables de mi infancia Las experiencias dolorosas del pasado permanecen en mi memoria El pasado tiene demasiados momentos desagradables que prefiero no recordar Las imágenes, sonidos y olores de mi infancia me traen recuerdos maravillosos Los recuerdos felices de los buenos momentos están muy presentes en mi mente Tengo nostalgia de mi infancia Me divierten las historias sobre cómo eran las cosas en mi infancia No tiene sentido preocuparme por el futuro ya que, de todos modos, no puedo hacer nada Ya que las cosas serán como tengan que ser, realmente no me preocupa lo que pase Uno no puede planificar el futuro porque las cosas cambian mucho Con frecuencia la suerte es más importante que el trabajo duro Me arriesgo para poner animación en mi vida Es importante poner excitación en mi vida Arriesgarme de vez en cuando hace que mi vida no sea tan aburrida De una vez por todas, voy a disfrutar de la vida tan plenamente como sea posible Termino mis proyectos a tiempo, avanzando de manera estable y continua Soy capaz de resistirme a las tentaciones cuando sé que tengo tareas que hacer Prefiero planificar el día siguiente y cumplir con los plazos antes que pensar en la diversión Cuando quiero conseguir algo, me fijo unas metas y pongo los medios para conseguirlas

Totalmente en desacuerdo

afirmaciones refleja una característica suya. Utilice para ello la siguiente escala en la que 1 indica “totalmente en desacuerdo” y 5 “totalmente de acuerdo”.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

165

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN

2. Piense en el día de ayer e indique el número aproximado de horas que dedicó a las siguientes actividades. Es muy importante que en total sumen 24 horas. Horas Dormir



Otros cuidados personales (desayunar, comer, cenar, aseo, etc.)



Actividades relacionadas con los estudios (clases en la Universidad, trabajos en grupo, etc.)



Trabajo remunerado



Tareas domésticas (cocinar, lavar, planchar, etc.)



Desplazamientos (a pie o utilizando algún medio de transporte)



Tiempo libre (tiempo dedicado a actividades no incluidas en los apartados anteriores)



3. ¿Cómo considera que fue el día de ayer? Habitual Inusual

4. Piense en el pasado domingo e indique el número aproximado de horas que dedicó a las siguientes actividades. Es muy importante que en total sumen 24 horas. Horas Dormir



Otros cuidados personales (desayunar, comer, cenar, aseo, etc.)



Actividades relacionadas con los estudios (clases en la Universidad, trabajos en grupo, etc.)



Trabajo remunerado



Tareas domésticas (cocinar, lavar, planchar, etc.)



Desplazamientos (a pie o utilizando algún medio de transporte)



Tiempo libre (tiempo dedicado a actividades no incluidas en los apartados anteriores)



5. ¿Cómo considera que fue ese domingo? Habitual Inusual

6. Piense en las actividades que le gusta hacer durante su tiempo libre e indique cómo de importantes

166

Poco importante

Algo importante

Bastante importante

Muy importante

Hacer cosas en familia Estar cerca de mis familiares Estar con mis amigos Hacer ejercicio Mantenerme en buena forma física Sentirme físicamente activo Desarrollar mis conocimientos Aprender nuevas cosas Desarrollar mis habilidades y capacidades Saber de lo que soy capaz Crecer y desarrollarme espiritualmente Reflexionar sobre mis inquietudes espirituales Experimentar cosas nuevas Vivir situaciones arriesgadas Atreverme a afrontar riesgos

Nada importante

son los siguientes aspectos a la hora de elegir esas actividades. Utilice para ello la siguiente escala en la que 1 indica “nada importante” y 5 “muy importante”.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION

7. Pensando en el último mes, ¿con qué frecuencia estima que ha realizado las siguientes actividades de

Ninguna vez

Una vez al mes

Varias veces al mes

Una vez a la semana

Varias veces a la semana

Todos o casi todos los días

ocio?

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Hablar por teléfono, escribir SMS o wasapear Escuchar música o radio Viajar y hacer turismo Ir de compras Ir a restaurantes Salir a tomar algo durante el día Ir a conciertos de música Salir de fiesta por la noche Ir al cine Jugar a videojuegos Navegar por Internet Utilizar las redes sociales Ver vídeos o películas online Ver la televisión Ir al teatro u otros espectáculos similares Tocar algún instrumento musical Ir a museos o exposiciones de arte Asistir a espectáculos deportivos Hacer deporte Pasear y caminar Leer libros (eBook y/o en papel) Leer comics Leer prensa (revistas o periódicos online y/o en papel) Colaborar con asociaciones No hacer nada, relajarse o descansar

8. ¿Qué estudios está cursando actualmente? ▼

9. Campus de la UCLM en el que cursa esos estudios. ▼

10. ¿Dónde se aloja a diario durante este curso académico? Domicilio familiar Piso alquilado/compartido Residencia universitaria

11. ¿En qué localidad está viviendo a diario durante este curso académico?

167

JUAN ANTONIO GARCÍA MARTÍN

12. ¿Cuántos habitantes tiene esta localidad? Menos de 2.001 habitantes Entre 2.001 y 5.000 habitantes Entre 5.001 y 10.000 habitantes Entre 10.001 y 20.000 habitantes Entre 20.001 y 50.000 habitantes Entre 50.001 y 100.000 habitantes Más de 100.000 habitantes

13. Para finalizar, indique, por favor, sus características sociodemográficas. Respuesta

168

Sexo



Edad



¿Realiza algún trabajo remunerado?



Número de personas en la unidad familiar (incluido usted)



Ingresos netos mensuales aproximados de la unidad familiar



THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION APPENDIX D. FREQUENCIES AND DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR LEISURE ACTIVITIES

Leisure activity

Talking on the phone and using instant messaging services Listening to the radio and music Travel and tourism Shopping Going to restaurants Going out for a drink Attending concerts Nightlife Going to the cinema Playing video games or online games Surfing the Internet Using social networks Watching online videos Watching TV Attending the theatre or similar activities Playing a musical instrument Visiting museums and art galleries Attending sporting events Sports Going for a walk Reading books (printed or eBooks) Reading comics Reading newspapers and magazines (printed or online) Collaborating with associations Resting and time out

Never (1)

Once a month (2)

Percentage More than once a month Once a but less week (4) than once a week (3) 1.25% 1.25%

0.00%

0.31%

0.31%

1.88%

2.19%

38.44% 11.56% 15.00% 8.13% 81.56% 13.75% 45.31% 51.56%

40.31% 30.00% 26.88% 8.44% 13.44% 18.75% 28.44% 7.81%

0.31% 2.81% 9.69% 4.38% 73.75%

More than once a week but less than once a day (5)

Daily or almost daily (6)

Mdn

5.63%

91.56%

6

4.38%

26.88%

64.38%

6

13.75% 35.94% 30.00% 31.88% 2.19% 29.06% 18.44% 11.25%

5.00% 14.69% 19.06% 28.13% 1.25% 26.25% 7.19% 6.25%

1.88% 6.88% 8.75% 21.88% 0.94% 11.56% 0.63% 13.44%

0.63% 0.94% 0.31% 1.56% 0.63% 0.63% 0.00% 9.69%

2 3 3 4 1 3 2 1

0.94% 1.56% 7.19% 2.81% 16.88%

2.19% 3.13% 16.25% 6.56% 5.00%

2.50% 3.44% 18.75% 6.25% 2.50%

14.38% 10.00% 27.50% 17.19% 1.56%

79.69% 79.06% 20.63% 62.81% 0.31%

6 6 4 6 1

85.00%

5.63%

0.31%

3.44%

2.50%

3.13%

1

76.25%

17.50%

4.06%

0.94%

0.94%

0.31%

1

59.38%

16.56%

10.63%

9.69%

2.81%

0.94%

1

21.25% 8.44% 26.56%

9.69% 6.56% 8.13%

16.56% 17.19% 17.19%

11.88% 12.81% 11.88%

22.50% 24.06% 18.75%

18.13% 30.94% 17.50%

4 5 3

87.50% 14.38%

3.44% 5.63%

1.88% 13.75%

4.38% 9.38%

1.88% 25.00%

0.94% 31.88%

1 5

76.56%

11.56%

4.06%

4.38%

2.81%

0.63%

1

6.88%

21.56%

26.25%

13.44%

4

3.44%

28.44%

Notes: Mdn: median. The grey shaded cells mark the highest percentage for each leisure activity.

169

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION APPENDIX E. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR TIME PERSPECTIVES AND LEISURE BENEFITS SOUGHT

Variable Time perspectives Past-negative Past-positive Present-fatalistic Present-hedonistic Future Leisure benefits sought Sociability Physical fitness Learning and competence testing Spirituality Risk taking

Minimum

Maximum

M (SD)

1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.27

4.79 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00

2.73 4.02 2.25 3.39 3.55

(0.84) (0.71) (0.86) (0.90) (0.76)

1.37 1.00 1.79 1.00 1.00

5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00

3.96 3.65 4.09 3.04 3.45

(0.71) (1.00) (0.64) (1.09) (0.90)

Notes: M: mean; SD: standard deviation.

171

THE ROLE OF TIME IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET SEGMENTATION VITA

Juan A. García is a PhD candidate in the Department of Marketing at the University of Castilla-La

Mancha

interests

include

(Spain).

His

consumer

research behaviour,

environmental psychology, and time studies. His research has been published in several Spanish and international journals such as Current Issues in Tourism, Cuadernos de Economía y Dirección de la Empresa, Journal of Language and Social Psychology,

Innovar,

Psyecology,

Tourism

Management, Universia Business Review, or Scan to discover his research!

Universitas Psychologica. More

information

about

his

research

is

available

at

http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Juan_Garcia51/publications Department of Marketing, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avenida Real Fábrica de Sedas s/n, 45600 Talavera de la Reina, Spain. Email: [email protected]

173

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