117CE ROMAN EMPIRE

ROMAN EMPIRE Gwyneth, Aparna, Vicky, Dash, Hakim

CONTENTS

Brief History

6-9

4-5

Notable Figures

Architecture

11-14

15-19

Overview of the society

Law

21-24

26-27

Rituals

Major Events

36-41

28-35 Achievement

BRIEF HISTORY

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YROTSIH FEIRB • 4 EGAP

An 18th-century painting of The Martyrdom of Saint Agnes in the Roman Forum, with the hills behind

BRIEF HISTORY

The Roman Empire, at its height (c. 117 CE), was the most extensive political and social structure in western civilization. By 285 CE the empire had grown too vast to be ruled by the central government at Rome and so was divided by Emperor Diocletian (r. 284-305 CE) into a Western and Eastern Empire. The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar (r. 27 BCE-14 CE) became the first emperor of Rome and ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus (r. 475-476 CE), was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (r. 476-493 CE). In the east, it continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI (r. 1449-1453 CE) and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. The influence of the Roman Empire on western civilization was profound in its lasting contributions to virtually every aspect of western culture.

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NOTABLE FIGURES

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MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO

Marcus Tullius Cicero was born in 106 B.C.E in Arpinum, Latium. He is a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, and writer who tried to uphold the republican principles in the civil wars that destroyed the Roman Republic. He was elected consul in 63 B.C., famously defeated the conspiracy of the patrician Cataline and won a reputation as one of Rome’s greatest orators. He wrote books of rhetoric, orations, philosophical, and political treatises. He did his military services under Pompeius Strabo and made his first appearance in the courts defending Publius Quinctius. He made his first important political speech as a praetor (a judicial officer of great power) against Quintus Lutatius Catulus. As one of the most prolific Roman writers, the number of his speeches, letters and treatises have survived into the modern era. His philosophical understanding was an orator’s paramount virtue. Cicero was deeply influenced by his training in the Greek philosophical schools. Even though he didn’t offer new philosophy of his own, he was still a matchless translator helping to render Greek ideas into eloquent Latin. More than 900 of Cicero’s letters that survived includes everything from official dispatches to casual notes to his family and friends. Everything that was known about politics and society of the Roman era was all because of Cicero’s correspondence. 7

GAUIS JULIUS CAESAR

Gaius Julius Caesar, also known as Augustus, was a Roman general and statesman. He is a member of the First Triumvirate. Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating Pompey in a civil war and governing the Roman Republic as a dictator from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. Caesar helped to change the course of Greco-Roman history. Because of the Greco-Roman society being extinct for so long, most of the names of its great men did not mean much to educated modern people but Caesar’s name is still on people’s minds throughout the Christian and Islamic worlds. As one of the most prolific Roman. Caesar’s clan, the Julii, were patricians (members of Rome’s original aristocracy). When his father suddenly died in 85 B.C., Caesar became the head of his family at the age of 16 during which a civil war broke out between his uncle Marius and the Roman ruler Lucius Cornelius Sulla. He married Cornelia, the daughter of an ally of Marius in 84 B.C. and had one daughter named Julia. Caesar was forced to divorce Cornelia when Sulla won the war. He refused and went into hiding while his family managed to convince Sulla to spare his life but he was stripped of his inheritance. Caesar began his political career as a military tribune and then quaestor of a Roman province. He then became an aedile (an important Roman magistrate) and two years later, he was elected Pontifex Maximus. 8

EMPEROR DIOCLETIAN

Emperor Diocletian is a Roman emperor from 284 to 305. He was born into a family of low status in Dalmatia but Diocletian rose through the ranks of the military to become a cavalry commander of Emperor Carus's army. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor. A major problem in ruling territory of the extent of the Roman Empire was its immense size and Diocletian understood this. Because it was too large to be ruled by one person, the first action taken by Diocletian was to split the empire into two parts. Maximian who was an Illyrian officer was chosen to be Caesar in the west while he remained an emperor in the east. Even though the concept of a divided empire was working, succession was still an issue faced by every emperor since Augustus. Diocletian’s solution to this problem was tetrarchy, an idea that preserved the empire in its present state with two emperors, but allowed for a smooth transition when an emperor dies or abdicate. A swarm of bureaucrats centralized the imperial administration and taxes went up. The people prospered and Christians were prosecuted as a subversive foreign sect.

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RASEAC SUILUJ

WHILE THEY ARE AFRAID OF US, LET THEM HATE AS MUCH AS THEY WANT.

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ELEMENTS OF CIVILIZATION

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Pantheon

The Panthenon

The Parthenon in Athens, Greece, is not to be mistaken with the Pantheon in Rome, Italy. The Greek Parthenon temple, atop the Acropolis, was built hundreds of years before the Roman Pantheon temple, despite the fact that both were originally temples to gods. The Pantheon in Rome was not constructed overnight. The legendary "Temple of All the Gods" in Rome began as a rectangular edifice that was twice destroyed and rebuilt. This initial Pantheon grew over a century into a domed structure that has inspired architects since before the Middle Ages. Archaeologists and historians debate which emperor and which architects designed the Pantheon we see today. Marcus Agrippa, the Roman Empire's first emperor, ordered the construction of a rectangular Pantheon in 27 B.C.

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The Pantheon portico, or entranceway, is a symmetrical, ancient style with three rows of Corinthian columns—eight in the front and two rows of four in the back—with a triangular pediment on top. The granite and marble columns came from Egypt, which was part of the Roman Empire at the time. But it is the Pantheon's dome, replete with an open hole at the top known as an oculus, that has elevated the structure to its current status. Authors, filmmakers, and architects have been inspired by the dome's shape and the oculus sunlight streaming through the inner walls.

Interior of the Pantheon 13

The Forum

In terms of architecture, the ancient Romans were masters of concrete. Around A.D. 125, Rome's adept builders applied superior engineering to the Greek classical orders when they created the Pantheon. They built their Pantheon with colossal 25-foot thick walls to hold a giant concrete dome. The concrete was combined with very light stone material as the dome's height increased, with the top being mostly pumice. The dome of the Roman Pantheon is the world's largest dome built of unreinforced solid concrete, with a diameter of 43.4 meters. On the outside of the dome, the "step-rings" can be observed. Professional engineers like David Moore believe the Romans employed corbeling techniques to build the dome, which resembles a collection of smaller washers stacked on top of each other. The Pantheon dome's ceiling features five symmetrical rows of 28 coffers, also called the sunken panels and a central spherical oculus, which is the opening. The Pantheon rotunda is illuminated by sunlight flowing through the oculus. The oculus and coffered ceiling were not only attractive, but they also helped to lighten the roof's burden. The walls are brick and concrete, despite the fact that the dome is made of concrete. Brick arches were created to support the weight of the top walls and dome, and they can still be seen on the outer walls. "Relieving arches" or "discharging arches" are the terms used to describe them. 14

OVERVIEW

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Being a Roman citizen has been a source of pride since ancient times. The "black nobles," families with papal titles who establish a society within high society, shunning exposure and avoiding closeness with the "white nobility," whose titles were awarded by mere temporal rulers, are among these Romans. The people of the Trastevere district pride themselves on being the most noble Romans of them all. Trastevere used to be the quarter for sailors and foreigners, whereas the founding fathers east of the river were soldiers and farmers. Every community was built on the foundation of the family, which was the nucleus of Roman society. Stable families were the most essential component of a strict hierarchy based on gender, citizenship, ancestry, and census rank, and they were the most important component of a strict hierarchy based on gender, citizenship, ancestry, and census rank (where one lived and how much land one owned). A citizen was originally described as any male above the age of fifteen who was a member of one of the three original Latin tribes that ruled the people politically and socially.

Roman Society

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On the political level, there was a leader at the top (consul during the republic, emperor during the empire), the senate, judges, and assemblies, while on the social level, there was the head of the home (pater familias), his wife, children, and, in some cases, his extended family (unmarried sisters, widowed mothers, ageing fathers). The patriarchy operated according to patronage standards in both the political and social spheres: those in authority were obligated to care for those under them. The consul, emperor, or head-of-house offered parental care and necessities to their charges in exchange for their loyalty and service.

Working-class heroes 17

The high-class Patricians and the working-class Plebeians were split into two classes, whose social standing and legal privileges were initially firmly defined in favor of the upper class until the Conflict of the Orders (c. 500-287 BCE), a power struggle between the Plebeians and the Patricians. As for jobs and profession in ancient Rome, everyone was a farmer when ancient Rome was barely getting started. Everybody was a fighter. When required, everyone had to fight. Jobs became more specialized as Rome grew. Farmers, doctors, engineers, architects, teachers, shopkeepers, craftsmen, soldiers, sailors, fisherman, writers, poets, musicians, statesmen, bankers, traders, merchants, accountants, government officials including tax collectors, smiths, jewelers, construction workers, temple workers, entertainers, artists, and slaves were among the jobs available at the time of the Republic.

High-class Patricians and the working-class Plebeians 18

Gladiators, charioteers, firemen, and welfare workers were all employed during the Empire. Some jobs were compensated with food, shelter, or other items. Some were compensated with Roman coins. Some merchants and craftsmen were affluent enough to hire slaves to help them with their work. The majority of peasants were poor and worked full-time, either in the city or on the farms. The patrician class, for the most part, had the luxury of leisure. Some people spent their day doing nothing but relaxing. Some of the participants were politicians. Some people were in charge of their country estates. Some made investments in a variety of enterprises. Some of them were Roman Legion officers. A patrician woman's responsibility was to look after the family and the home, and she was frequently assisted by slaves. Women could own businesses and even work outside the home throughout the Empire.

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Detail of Caesar from Vercingetorix 19

SUTSUGUA

I FOUND ROME A CITY OF BRICKS AND LEFT IT THE CITY OF MARBLES. .

ROMAN LAW

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Roman law, the law of ancient Rome from the time of the founding of the city in 753 BCE until the fall of the Western Empire in the 5th century CE. It remained in use in the Eastern, or Byzantine, Empire until 1453. As a legal system, Roman law has affected the development of law in most of Western civilization as well as in parts of the East. It forms the basis for the law codes of most countries of continental Europe (see civil law) and derivative systems elsewhere. During the Period of the Republic of the Roman Civilisation, the jus civile (also known as the civil law) was developed. This form of law is only applied to Roman citizens. However, by the middle of the 3rd century BCE, jus gentium, or known as the law of nations was developed by the Romans to be applied on both Romans and foreigners. jus gentian was developed by the magistrates and governors who were responsible for the administration of justice in the cases where foreigners were involved. the three elements consisted on the law of magistrate goes as follows, an existing mercantile law that was used by the mediterranean traders, those those institutions of the Roman law that, after being purged of their formalistic elements, could be applied universally to any litigant, Roman or foreigner; and (3) in the last resort, a magistrate’s own sense of what was fair and just.

Jus Civile (Civil Law)

Jus Gentium (Law of Nations) 22

Apart from the civil and magistrate law, the Roman civilisation also divided their law into jus scriptum (written law) and jus non-scriptum (unwritten law). jus non-scriptum, or "unwritten law", is meant by the customs, whereas jus scriptum, or written law, is meant by not only laws from the legislation, but every type of law in the written source. In the roman law system, there are 4 types of written law that are followed. The first type of written law consists of leges (singular lex), or enactments of one of the assemblies of the whole Roman people. In this law, although the wealthier and upper-class people are more dominant, the common people also have their own council called plebiscita. The earliest and most important legislation, or body of leges, was the Twelve Tables, enacted in 451–450 BCE during the struggle of the plebeians for political equality. The second type of written law consists of edicta (edicts) or proclamations issued by a superior magistrate on judicial matters. The office of praetor was created in 367 BCE to take over the expanding legal work involving citizens; later, a separate praetor was created to deal with foreigners. The Roman system of procedure gave the magistrate great powers to provide or refuse judicial remedies. The third type of law is the Senatus consulta, also known as the resolution of the Roman senate. The fourth type of law consisted of the constitutiones principum, which were, in effect, expressions of the legislative power of the emperor. The last type of law is the responsa prudentium, or answers to legal questions given by learned lawyers to those who consulted them.

Jus Scriptum (written law) and Jus Non-Scriptum (unwritten law) 23

When Justinian I, the Byzantine emperor, came to power in 527 CE, the Roman Empire's law was in a state of disarray, with two distinct bodies of legislation known as old law and new law. All statutes passed during the republic and early empire that had not become obsolete, Senate decrees passed at the end of the republic and during the first two centuries of the empire, and writings of jurists, particularly those jurists to whom the emperors had given the right of declaring the law with their authority, were included in the old law. In their remarks, these jurists had covered almost everything that was important. Many of these old legal papers and writings had become scarce or had vanished entirely, and some were of dubious provenance. The new legislation, which comprised of emperors' ordinances proclaimed during the middle and later periods of the empire was similarly unorganised. There were a lot of ordinances or constitutions, and they were all inconsistent. Because there was no comprehensive collection, other ordinances had to be gathered independently. As a result, it was necessary to compile as much of the law as was considered as binding, both new and old, into a reasonable corpus and to eliminate its contradictions and inconsistencies.

Justinian Code: the body of Roman Law that was codified and promulgated under Justinian

Code of Justinian, Byzantine Emperor (527-565 AD)

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RASEAC SUILUJ

A COWARD DIES A THOUSAND DEATHS, THE GALLANT NEVER TASTE OF DEATH BUT ONCE

RITES AND RITUALS

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Romans usually show their respect and reverence to God in their prayers, offerings and festivals. The prayers conducted are addressed to the Gods to obtain favours and are often accompanied by vows. Some of the religious offerings consist either of the fruits of the earth such as flowers, wine, milk honey, or sacrifices of domestic animals like oxen, sheep and swine. The festivals which were celebrated in honor of the gods were very numerous and were scattered through the different months of the year. The old Roman calendar contained a long list of these festival days. The new year began with March and was consecrated to Mars and celebrated with war festivals. Other religious festivals were devoted to the sowing of the seed, the gathering of the harvest, and similar events which belonged to the life of an agricultural people such as the early Romans were. Romans from the earliest times of their existence practiced a purifying ritual called Lupercalia. Priests sacrificed goats and a dog at the Lupercal, the cave where legend says Romulus and Remus were suckled, and their blood was smeared on two youths. Young women were whipped across their shoulders in the belief it bestowed fertility. The rite was performed in mid February at an altar near Lapis Niger, a sacred site paved with black stones near the Roman Forum until A.D. 494 when it was banned by the pope.

ritual performed by vestal virgins

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preparation for a Roman sacrifice

MAJOR EVENTS

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RASEAC SUILUJ

I CAME, I SAW, I CONQUERED.

The Founding of Rome

Orphaned Romulus and Remus with a she-wolf

The founding of Roman on April 21, 753 B.C. by twin brothers Romulus and Remus where they were suckled by a she-wolf as orphaned infants. In fact, the tale of Romulus and Remus dates from the fourth century B.C., and the precise year of Rome's creation was determined by Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro in the first century B.C. Romulus and Remus were sons of Rhea Silvia who was impregnated by the war god Mars who was then ordered to be drowned by Amulius in the river Tiber. However, they survived and washed up at the foot of the Palatine hill, where a wolf took care of the infants until they were discovered by Faustulus, a shepherd.

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Faustulus and his wife raised the twins, who went on to lead a band of young shepherd warriors. They attacked Alba Longa after learning their true identities, killing the evil Amulius and restoring their grandfather to the kingdom. The twins then decided to establish a village on the spot where they were saved as babies. However, they soon got into a trivial quarrel, and Remus was killed by his brother. Romulus was then made king of the settlement, which he named "Rome" after himself.

Romulus killing his brother Remus

Romulus granted shelter to fugitives and exiles in order to populate his town. However, because Rome lacked women, Romulus summoned the Sabines to a party and kidnapped their women. After that, a conflict broke out, but the Sabine women intervened to save the Sabine men from capturing Rome. A peace pact was drafted, and the communities were amalgamated under the control of Romulus and Titus Tatius, the Sabine monarch. Due to Tatius' early death, which was possibly caused by Romulus, the Roman was once again the only ruler. Romulus died in mysterious circumstances after a long and successful reign. Many Romans believed he had been transformed into a god and venerated him as Quirinus, the divinity. Following Romulus, Rome had six more monarchs, the last three of whom were thought to be Etruscans. The Roman republic was founded in 509 B.C.

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The Twelve Tables

The Law of the Twelve Tables

The Law of the Twelve Tables was established in 449 BC, known as one of the earliest codes of law that is still around. This set of laws were inscribed on 12 bronze tablets. They marked the start of a new approach to laws, which were now passed by the government and written down in order for all citizens to be treated equally in front of them. Even if it isn't a fully codified system, these 12 laws were considered a stepping stone to ensure the protection of rights of all its citizens as well as allowing wrongs to be rectified through properly defined written laws that were accessible to all. As a result, the Roman approach to the law became the model for many future civilizations, all the way up to the current day.

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The exact purpose for the Tables' creation is lost in the mists of time, although their substance was frequently acknowledged in later Roman written works once they were published. Unfortunately, the tablets themselves were destroyed when Rome was conquered by the Gauls in 390 BCE, according to legend. At least some specifics can be deduced from the remaining bits and allusions in the literature.

An illustration of a scene of a Roman government

The list of laws appears to cover most aspects of private law and focuses on relationships between persons (rather than individuals vs. the state or non-citizen rights), making it more of a list of civil actions and punishments than a comprehensive law code. It also mostly deals with issues that pertain to a farming state.

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Assasination Of Julius Caesar

A painting of the assasination of Julius Caesar

In 44 BC, marked the end of the civil war and the birth of the Roman Empire as well as the funeral for the Roman Republic. Julius Caesar, he was a very successful commander for the Roman Republic, he expanded the Roman Republic to the places where it now belongs to Germany, Spain, France etc.

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After his term of service as a consul for the Roman Republic, Julius Caesar went to Gaul and planned to create his personal army because he knew the importance of military power in politics. After he gathered a sufficient amount of troops, he returned to Rome without any resistance because the senators were not ready to fight Julius Caesar.

Julius Caesar returned to Rome with his troops

Eventually, Julius Caesar took over Rome and became the dictator, did not crown himself as a king but held greater power than a king. With all that power held in Julius’ hand, many members of the senate began to have the initiation to end Julius’ life. On March 15 44 BC, Julius Caesar was assasinated by the senators with 23 strikes on Julius during the meeting of the Senate. His death brought the opposite effect as those senators would have wanted, the people of Rome hated the assassins and this had led to the rise of the Roman Empire instead of the Roman Republic.

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ACHIEVEMENTS

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RASEAC SUILUJ

IT IS BETTER TO DIE THAN TO LIVE WITH THE EXPECTATION OF DEATH.

Construction Engineering

Cross section of an old Roman road

Construction engineering was one of the most significant technological achievements of the Roman era. These were based on the creation of the earliest concrete in history, which occurred in southern Italy in the 2nd century BCE. This material (which had a volcanic lava basis) was critical in the development of Roman architectural advances like the arch and the dome. These allowed Roman engineers to cross considerably bigger areas than they had previously been able to. Huge stone bridges, the first of their kind, were thrown across rivers; multistory aqueducts marched across valleys; and aweinspiring structures like the Pantheon in Rome, and much later the Cathedral of S. Sophia in Constantinople, used domed roofs to enclose larger areas than any other building until the 16th century.

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The Romans were clearly daring and accomplished engineers. More than anything else, this can be seen in their highways, which stretched for hundreds of kilometres across a variety of terrain and served a critical role in tying the empire together. Advanced surveying techniques were utilised to lay out these roadways, which included tools developed from those used by astronomers to calculate angles.

Ancient Rome Aqueducts

With the construction of the first water mills documented in history, the Roman civilization took the next big step down this route. These have been used to grind grain from the first century BCE, according to Roman writers such as Vitruvius and Pliny the Elder. They are thought to have originated in the Greek-speaking eastern empire, but one mill in southern France in the first century CE featured no less than sixteen overshot water wheels, which were fed by the major aqueduct to Arles. This mill was said to be capable of supplying enough bread for Arles' full population of 12,500 people at the time.

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Largest Empire

Size of the Roman Empire in 117AD

The Roman Empire has achieved something that no others can achieve by that time. With the death of Julius Caesar, his successor Octavian with the power that overwhelmed all Romans, started to expand the territory of the Roman Empire. Being the first emperor of the Roman Empire, even Octavian did not title himself as an emperor, he held all the power like his adoptive father, Julius Caesar. Even Octavian has the ambition of conquering other territory in the name of glory for the Roman Republic, but it is not him that brings the glory to Rome. In 98 CE, Trajan became the ruler of the Roman empire and it was him that led the Roman Empire to the most successful territory expansion.

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Trajan started to expand The Roman Empire in 98AD after Nerva's death, expanding and protecting The Roman Empire became the priority for him. Ironically although Trajan tried his best to expand the empire, in 117AD he died because of ill while defending the barrier of his beloved Roman Empire.

The broken statue of Trajan

During the peak of the expansion, it was estimated to have the total 5 million square kilometers as the area of The Roman Empire, it is bigger than the European Union nowadays

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REFLECTIONS

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Vicky

During the whole process of this assignment, I gained many knowledge about the history of Rome. I have always liked the Pantheon and it is really interesting to learn about it through this assignment. I enjoyed working with my group mates as everyone is so cooperative and efficient. Apart from that, we take in opinions, we brainstorm together and there is no pressure . To me, civilization matters because it helps me have a better understanding of the world since we all live in it. It also helps me provide a better insight of how history was unfolded. I feel like civilization is good as it helps us all improved as well as the society where we grow and accomplish new things. What went wrong is the we are at a higher risk of disease and violence simply because we live with more people, and we have to deal with politics and all the issues that divide people, such as race, class, and so on.

Hakim

In my opinion, the Roman civilization matters to us because they developed a lot of things that we can still implement in our society today. For example, the Roman Alphabet became the basis of many modern languages including French, Spanish, and Italian. The Romans also help to develop early newspapers whereby information was carved on stone tablets. The other thing that the Romans did right was the inclusion of political offices and institutions that was designed to prevent anyone from becoming too powerful and this is very important in the current times as politics are becoming more and more corrupt as one politician can become so influential and they can do anything they want. That being said there are things that the Romans did wrong which is overexpansion because during the height of the Roman Empire, the grandeur of the civilization became their downfall.

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Aparna

Gwyneth

There has been a lot of new knowledge ascribed over the timeline of finishing the flipbook regarding the chosen civilisation, which is the Roman civilisation. During my research into the civilisation, I discovered that there is much more to the Athens-Spartacus war than meets the eye. Looking into the Roman law and the rites and rituals that were implemented back in the day, I've learned that there are a plethora of rules that I was previously unaware of. The distinction between civil law, which applies solely to Romans, and law of nations, which also applies to outsiders, written and unwritten law, and justinian law is absolutely fascinating when understood and looking at how significantly different the laws are is indeed interesting to learn about. As for the rites and rituals, the understanding of how each ritual work, and the sacrifices that are conducted for it is absolutely mind boggling. All in all, it was a very knowledgeable experience and I have enjoyed the process of completing this flipbook with amazing teammates while learning about Roman civilisation alongside them.

Throughout the 10 weeks of working on this flipbook about the chosen topic; the Roman civilisation, I have learned a lot. While working on my part, the research I have done on the major events as well as major achievements, I was made aware that the Roman civilisation has played a huge role, especially in today's society. For example, the invention of concrete and construction engineering during this civilisation and how it is used to build all the amazing architecture which are all historical in today's time and age. Because of the fact that the Romans were such well-known engineers, they are able to make roads and pavements even in the early times. Despite being a civilisation that has contributed so much in today's modern world, added on to that, the fact that it was once considered the largest empire in the world is a feat. However, with great heights comes a great fall. One of the factors which caused the Roman civilisation to fall is because of the overexpansion and military expansion. Although the Romans had such great road systems, they were unable to communicate efficiently. All in all, while working on this project, I have gained insights into the impact the Roman civilisation has played on our society.

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Dash

There are tons of things that happened in the Roman Civilization, some lead it into glory and some drag it down from the throne. What I learned from the Roman Civilization comes from the Great Julius Caesar’s quote, “A coward dies a thousand deaths, the gallant never taste of death but once”, the underlying message in this quote is that only the braves can achieve something that worth talking about, in order to be successful, I need to be brave enough to try, whether its ideas or experiences. Another thing I learned from the Roman Civilization is from the event of the assasination of Julius Caesar, extreme powers held in one's hand can lead to destruction because of the jealousy of mankind. There is no way to satisfy all people, but you need to try your best to prevent backlashes. With all the research conducted and understanding about this civilization, we as citizens of modern society need to adapt the good things in the civilization and avoid what they’ve done wrong in the past.

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REFERENCES

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SPECIAL THANKS TO: Mr. Irwan

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RM 312.30