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UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID FACULTAD DE FILOLOGÍA
Comparing thematic features in English and Spanish: A functional analysis of two newspaper genres
Submitted to Departmento de Filología Inglesa I (Lengua y Lingüística Inglesas) in fulfillment of the requirements for the Master’s Degree: “Lingüística Inglesa: Nuevas Aplicaciones y Comunicación Internacional”
by Lara Moratón Gutiérrez (June 2009)
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Julia Lavid López
A functional analysis of two paper genres
Table of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 4 Keywords ...................................................................................................................................... 4 List of figures ................................................................................................................................. 5 List of tables .................................................................................................................................. 6 I. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 7 1. 1. Background ....................................................................................................................... 7 1.2. Research questions ............................................................................................................ 8 1. 3. Organization of the thesis ................................................................................................. 8 2. Theoretical foundation ........................................................................................................... 10 2. 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 10 2. 2. Text types, register and genre ........................................................................................ 11 2.2.1 Text types ................................................................................................................... 11 2.2.2 Register ...................................................................................................................... 13 2.2.3 Genre ......................................................................................................................... 13 2. 3. Thematic organization of the clause .............................................................................. 15 3. Materials and Methods ........................................................................................................... 20 3.1. Materials .......................................................................................................................... 20 3.2. Methods ........................................................................................................................... 21 4. Results ..................................................................................................................................... 23 4.1 Experiential elements as Heads and PreHeads in English and Spanish ............................. 23 4.1.1 English Editorials and News articles ........................................................................... 23 4.1.2 Spanish Editorials and News articles .......................................................................... 29 4.1.3 Contrastive analysis of experiential roles as Thematic Heads ................................... 34 4.2 Textual and Interpersonal Themes ................................................................................... 41 4.2.1 Textual and Interpersonal Themes in the English texts ............................................. 41
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4.2.2 Textual and interpersonal Themes in Spanish ........................................................... 44 4.2.3 Contrastive thematic interpersonal and textual choices in Editorials and News articles ................................................................................................................................. 46 4.3 Syntactic features .............................................................................................................. 49 4.3.1 Syntactic features in English Editorials and News articles ......................................... 49 4.3.2 Syntactic features in Spanish editorials and news articles ......................................... 53 4.3.3 Syntactic features of Thematic Heads and Pre-‐Heads in English and Spanish ........... 56 5. Discussion and concluding remarks ........................................................................................ 58 6. References .............................................................................................................................. 62
Appendix
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Abstract This study is a contrastive description of the clausal thematic features which characterize two newspaper genres -news articles and editorials- in English and Spanish with the aim to determine whether the choices are due to language-specific or to genrespecific constraints. The sample used for the study consists of a comparable sample of thirty two texts, sixteen in English and sixteen in Spanish, collected along a number of external and internal criteria to ensure generic, registerial and text type comparability in both languages. The contrastive analysis focuses on three main thematic features: (1) the experiential elements selected as Thematic Heads, (2) the textual and interpersonal thematic choices; (3) the syntactic features of the Thematic Heads and Pre-heads. The results of the analysis indicate that, though there are some language-specific tendencies, genre-specific constrains seem to be the determining factor in the selection and syntactic realization of the thematic features of the two newspaper genres investigated in this study.
Keywords: newspaper genres, experiential roles, thematisation, textual theme, interpersonal theme, thematic head, pre-head, thematic syntactic realizations, functional analysis.
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List of figures
Figure 1. Experiential roles in English Editorials and News Articles ........................................24 Figure 2. Experiential roles in Spanish Editorials and News articles.........................................30 Figure 3 Experiential roles in Spanish and English Editorials ...................................................35 Figure 4. Experiential roles in Spanish and English News articles ............................................35 Figure 5. Experiential roles in English and Spanish Editorials and News articles.....................41 Figure 6. Textual Themes in English and Spanish Editorials ....................................................46 Figure 7. Textual Themes in Spanish and English News articles ..............................................48 Figure 8. Syntactic features of Thematic Heads and PreHeads in English ............................ ...49 Figure 9. Syntactic features of Thematic Heads and Pre-heads in Spanish ..............................53 Figure 10. Syntactic features of Thematic Heads and Pre-heads in English and Spanish .........56
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List of tables
Table 1. Participants and Process types in English Editorials and News articles .................... 24 Table 2. Participants and process types in Spanish Editorials and News articles .................... 30 Table 3 Textual themes in English Editorials and News articles ............................................. 41 Table 4. Textual Themes in Spanish editorials and news articles ............................................ 44 Table 5. Noun Phrases as Thematic Heads in English and Spanish ......................................... 57 Table 6. Np+App in Spanish and English Editorials and News articles .................................. 57
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I. Introduction 1. 1. Background The study of thematisation has been recognized as a fundamental phenomenon in the construction of messages and texts by different linguistic schools, in spite of the lack of consensus on the terminology used (see Lavid 2000a). Thematising a linguistic unit by placing it in first-initial position in the clause, paragraph or text confers upon it a special status as a signal of the organizational strategy which characterises different text types (Lavid 2000b), and, therefore, plays a role as a variable in the distinction of registers, text types and genres. One productive line of research has focused on the relationship between thematic selection and registers and genres (see Ghadessy 1995), focusing almost exclusively on English. There are also contrastive studies comparing thematisation in English with other languages, such as Norwegian (Hasselgaard 2004), or German (Ventola), but these have focused on one single text type, with the exception of Lavid (2000c) who focused on thematic selection as a signal of specific chaining strategies characterizing different text types in English, Spanish and German. This study attempts to advance knowledge in this area by focusing on two newspaper genres -news articles and editorials- in English and Spanish whose thematic features have not been studied contrastively before as indicative of their generic characterization.1 The study analyses the experiential roles that are selected as Thematic Head and PreHead as well as the kinds of textual and interpersonal elements that may occur as part of a multiple Theme. It also analyses the syntactic features which characterise Thematic Heads and PreHeads.
1
See Lavid et al. (submitted) for an initial step in this direction.
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It is thus primarily a study of the lexicogrammatical properties of Themes in the two languages, not of Theme as part of a pattern of thematic progression. The analysis has been carried out as an initial exploratory step in a more extensive investigation of the thematic features of different newspaper genres in English and Spanish, as part of a larger project where the author collaborates as pre-doctoral researcher.
1.2. Research questions The research questions investigated in this thesis are the following: 1. What are the experiential elements selected as Thematic Head in news articles and editorials in English and in Spanish? Are the differences in this selection languagespecific or genre-specific? 2. What are the textual and interpersonal Themes selected in news reports and in editorials in both languages? Are there any language or genre-specific preferences? 3. What are the syntactic features which characterize Thematic Heads and PreHeads in news reports and editorials in both languages? Are there any language or genre-specific preferences?
1. 3. Organization of the thesis The thesis is organized as follows. Section 2 offers a general view of the theoretical models and categories used in the current investigation. It includes references to the systemic functional frame and the notions of text type, register and genre, along with an overview of the model used for the contrastive analysis of the thematic features Lara Moratón Gutiérrez
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investigated in this study. Section 3 presents the materials and methods used in the analysis, including the sample selection criteria and the methodological steps for the contrastive analysis. Section 4 presents the results of the analysis, divided into three subparts corresponding to the research questions posed at the beginning of the study. Section 5 discusses the results of the analysis and provides some concluding remarks. As an appendix, a CD-ROM is attached containing all the texts analyzed in terms of their thematic features.
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2. Theoretical foundation 2. 1. Introduction This section provides some theoretical background based on which this study has been designed and conducted. Although the overall approach used in this study is functional, I have not confined myself to one single theory, but I have used a number of theoretical models to address the different phases of the proposed investigation. For the first phase of the study –the establishment of the comparability status of the contrastive sample selected for analysis- I have adopted a synthesized version of Halliday and Hassan analytical framework (1989) that includes contextual and textual analyses, as will be shown in section 3.1 below. For the second phase of the study –the investigation of the contrastive thematic features in the proposed genres- I have used the model proposed in Lavid et al. (in press), which extends and operationalises the original systemicfunctional notion of Theme, as applied to the English language (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004, Matthiessen 1992), to provide a more accurate treatment of the message structure of the clause in Spanish. Given the variety of issues involved in this study, the following sections will briefly overview the main theoretical categories and models used in the present study.
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2. 2. Text types, register and genre 2.2.1 Text types Traditionally, text types refer to rhetorical categories, like narration, description, exposition and argumentation. The identification of text types is deeply rooted in our culture (Faigley and Meyer 1983), but the number and the labels of these rhetorical categories vary according to the linguist’s orientation and preferences. For example, Werlich (1976) analyses five text types (narration, description, exposition, argumentation and instruction), Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) propose seven text types (descriptive, narrative, argumentative, scientific, didactic, literary and poetic), Adam (1992) analyses five text types (récit, description, argumentation, explication and dialogue). Some scholars use the label “text types” to indicate instrumental or practical genres, as opposed to literary genres (see Görlach 2004). Others use “text types” and “genres” interchangeably, as synonyms (i. e. Stubbs 1996; Karlgren 2000). Finally, others (e.g. Kilgarriff and Grefenstette 2003) use the term “text types” without any further indication on how this label should be interpreted in the context in which they use it. Since the publication of Biber’s work on linguistic variation across speech and writing (Biber 1988), the term “text types” has entered corpus linguistics. His work is by now a classic of statistical corpus-based approach, and has influenced also European standards for large language resources, such as the EAGLES guidelines on text typology (EAGLES 1996).
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Biber (1988) makes a distinction between genre – which later becomes register (Biber 1995: 9) – and text types. In his view, genre is influenced by cultural and external criteria, whereas text types can be derived from the texts themselves, irrespective of their genre. In other words, while external criteria follow distinctions and classifications already available in the culture, Biber establishes a typology of texts based on internal linguistic criteria only, which are interpreted with reference to external functions. Biber (1988: 102–103) suggests the following textual dimensions: 1. Involved versus informational production 2. Narrative versus nonnarrative concerns 3. Explicit versus situation-dependent reference 4. Overt expression of persuasion 5. Abstract versus nonabstract style According to these five variations Biber establishes eight text types, although (…) texts do not divide sharply into distinct types – instead there is a continuous range of variation in linguistic form and use. The notion of text types developed here is based on frequent and therefore typical clustering of texts (…) Biber (1989:16-17)
The eight types are “Intimate personal interaction”, “Informational interaction”, “Scientific exposition”, “Learned exposition”, “Imaginative narrative”, “General narrative exposition”, “Situated reportage” and “Involved persuasion”.
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2.2.2 Register Halliday's approach takes into consideration the “context of situation” is “the total environment in which a text unfolds” (Halliday and Hasan 1989:5), that is, who is participating, what is taking place and what role language is playing. Thus, analysis of context is broken down into field, tenor, and mode, which collectively constitute the "register" of a text and makes possible for the speaker/writer to orient themself in the context of situation (Halliday, 1985:12) • The field of discourse: Refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place. • The tenor of discourse: Refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statuses and roles. • The mode of discourse: the symbolic organization of the text (text type in Biber’s words), the channel of communication, such as spoken/written, monologic/dialogic,
+/-
visual
contact,
computer-mediated
communication/telephone/F2F, etc.
2.2.3 Genre According to Swales genre (…) comprises a class of communicative events, the members of which share some set of communicative purposes. Theses purposes are recognised by the expert members of the parent discourse community, and thereby constitute the rationale for the genre….in addition to purpose, exemplars of a genre exhibit various patterns of similarity in terms of structure, style, content and intended audience Swales (1990:58)
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Following Swales definition we may find several categories under the label of newspaper genre, this categorization is given by the Boston University: • News articles generally follow an "inverted pyramid" structure for conveying information about a current event, incident, or issue of public interest. The first sentence of the article, or lead, gives the most important facts (who, what, when, where), and the following paragraphs present, in descending order of importance, the details of the event, incident, or issue (how, why). A news article should strive to remain objective and should use neutral language while presenting a diversity of opinions, voices, and perspectives of the event, incident, or issue under discussion. • Feature articles are less time-sensitive than news articles, and may describe people, places, or events of general interest to the public. They also tend to be longer than news articles. Feature articles often begin with a "hook" that is meant to catch the reader's attention, and go on to describe interesting aspects of the topic under consideration without necessarily following the "inverted pyramid" structure. • Columns give the opinion of the writer on a topic of his or her interest and may range from stories about private or public individuals to statements of the writer's position on an issue of public concern. The writer, or columnist, writes these articles as a regular feature of his/her newspaper, and they appear in the same place in every issue of the newspaper, usually filling one entire column of text (hence the name). • Editorials (or leading articles in the UK) are written for newspaper publication and present the writer's opinion on an issue of current public interest.
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This study focuses on editorials and news articles following the definitions given above.
2. 3. Thematic organization of the clause In this study I have adopted the model proposed by Lavid et al. (in press), which extends and operationalises the original systemic-functional notion of Theme, as applied to the English language (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004, Matthiessen 1992), to provide a more accurate treatment of the message structure of the clause in Spanish.2 In this model the message structure of the clause consists of two main functionally-distinct zones or fields: the Thematic field and the Rhematic field. The Thematic field is a complex functional zone in clause-initial position serving a variety of clausal and discourse functions, and consists of two main components: the Inner Thematic field and the Outer Thematic field. The Inner Thematic field consists of elements selected from the experiential structure of the clause, and can include two components: (a) The Thematic Head (b) The Pre-head The Thematic Head is the nuclear part of the Inner Thematic Field with both discourse and clausal functions. In Lavid et al (in press) the Thematic Head is defined as the first element with a function in the experiential configuration of the clause which is more central to the unfolding of the text by allowing the tracking of the discourse participants. It is also the element most closely aligned with the spatial, temporal or metaphorical location of the speaker/writer, from whose perspective or point of view the message is 2 Although the model has been developed for the characterization of the Spanish clause, it is sufficiently general to account for English as well, so I have adopted it for the current contrastive study. The examples used in this section have been adopted from the ones in Lavid et al (in press) or directly quoted with permission from the authors.
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presented to the addressee (clausal function). Thus, in (1a) the Thematic Head is ‘Luisa’, while in (1b) it is ‘Juan’ (in all the examples below the Thematic Head is underlined): (1a)
(1b)
Luisa recibió una carta de Pablo ‘Luisa received a letter from Pablo’ Luisa
recibió una carta de Pablo
Thematic Head
Rhematic field
Juan envió una carta a María ‘Juan sent a letter to María’ Juan
envió una carta a María
Thematic Head
Rhematic field
In (1a) the scene is described from the Recipient's perspective, whereas in (1b) it is presented from that of the Agent. In the former, the speaker aligns himself with the Recipient, so to speak, while in the latter he sides with the Agent.3 In the Spanish clause, the Thematic Head may be explicit or implicit, depending on factors such as the informational status of its referent, its definiteness, etc...An explicit Thematic Head is encoded through independent lexical and grammatical forms, such as Nominal Groups or nominal clauses. An implicit Thematic Head is encoded through verbal prefixes or suffixes, depending on the function of the Head in the interpersonal structure of the clause. If the implicit Thematic Head functions as Subject, the realisation is a verbal suffix indicating the person and number of the participant. If it functions as Complement, it is
3
For a more detailed account of the notion of ‘conceptual distance’ in the context of Natural Language Generation, see Hovy and Lavid (2007).
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realised through clitics. This is illustrated in (3) below, where the clitic ‘la’ refers to a discourse participant previously mentioned in the text: (3)
La
engañaron ... el sello y el sobre
Her
deceived
the stamp and the envelope
‘She was deceived by the stamp and the envelope’
If the Thematic Head is explicit and functions as a Complement, the realization is typically done through lexical means followed by a clitic copy, as in (4), where the reference to the participant ‘la chica’ is made first through lexical means (‘a la chica’) followed by a clitic copy ‘la’. (4)
A la chica
la
llamaron Juana
To the girl,
her
called
Juana
‘They called the girl Juana’
The Pre-Head is the non-nuclear part of the Inner Thematic Field. This is typically realised by Circumstantial elements which do not exhaust the thematic potential of the clause, as illustrated in example (5) below. The Circumstantial elements can be encoded as groups, but also as adverbial clauses, as illustrated by the first and the second Circumstantial elements in example (5) below, from Lavid et al (in press): (5)
Junto a estos convenios, y con el propósito de fomentar el intercambio científico, la Fundación ha consolidado una amplísima red de relaciones dentro y fuera de España que la convierten en una de las instituciones más dinámicas del país.
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Junto a convenios
estos y con el propósito la de fomentar el Fundación intercambio científico
Circumstantial Circumstantial PreHead Inner Thematic Field
ha consolidado una amplísima red de relaciones dentro y fuera de España que la convierten en una de lasinstituciones más dinámicas del país.
Participant Head Rhematic Field
Circumstantial elements in thematic position may perform a variety of functions, depending on their semantic nature. Temporal or Location Circumstantials often function as scene-setting frameworks (see Downing 1991). The Pre-Head may also include other elements such as the ‘se’ marker (when pronominal or passive), and the non-inflectional part of the verbal form whenever the Subject is implicit, as shown in (6) below: (6)
se halla ahora ante un proceso de expansión internacional ‘it is in a process of international expansion’ se
hall-
-a
Pron. ‘se’ Pre-head
FIND
3psg. Ind. Head
Thematic field
ahora ante un proceso de expansión internacional Pres.
Rhematic field
The Outer Thematic field is configured by elements which surround and complete the Inner Thematic field. The range of elements which can be selected for the Outer Thematic field is varied, and may consist of the following types:
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a) Textual themes: these are elements which are instrumental in the creation of the logical connections in the text, such as linkers, binders, and other textual markers. b) Interpersonal themes: these are elements which express the attitude and the evaluation of the speaker with respect to his/her message, including those expressing modality and polarity. c) Absolute thematic constructions: these are constructions which are not integrated in the main predication and usually appear separated by a pause, or a comma, from the main clause.
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3. Materials and Methods 3.1. Materials The first phase of the study consisted in compilation of a bilingual English-Spanish corpus which could be considered as comparable along a number of criteria. The criteria used for text compilation were of two types: 1. External criteria: this included the decade of publication and the type of publication. With respect to the former, the year of publication was 2008 and 2009. The editorials were selected from the Project Syndicate (http://www.project-‐syndicate.org) and El País digital (http://www.elpais.com), while the news articles were selected from two highcirculation
newspapers
available
online,
the
Times
online
(http://www.timesonline.co.uk) and El País digital (http://www.elpais.com). 2. Internal criteria: this included categories of ‘genre’, the systemic-functional category of ‘register’ and the notion of ‘text type’ (Biber 1988), as briefly described in section 2.2. above. The sample collection procedure was as follows: 1. In order to ensure the genre comparability of our bilingual sample, we used the classification provided by the CPCS Writing Portfolio of different newspaper genres.4 According to this classification, a news article “should strive to remain objective and should use neutral language while presenting a diversity of opinions, voices, and perspectives of the event, incident, or issue under discussion”. An editorial, also known as op-ed, “presents the writer’s opinion on an issue of current public interest.” 4
This classification is available from the College of Public and Community Service of the University of Massachusets Boston. Their web page can be consulted at: http://www.cpcs.umb.edu/support/studentsupport/academic/genres_newspaper.htm
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2. In order to ensure register comparability, a modest register analysis was carried out to ensure the similarity of the English and the Spanish texts across the features of ‘field’, ‘tenor’ and ‘mode’. With respect to ‘field’, all the texts collected dealt with economic matterns, each bilingual pair of texts sharing the same ‘topic’. The ‘tenor’ of the texts involved similar participants with similar statuses and roles in the English and the Spanish texts. In the case of editorials, the writer is, in most cases, a well-known politician, journalist, or intellectual. The mode includes features like the channel of communication which is written in both genres and monologic. In the case of news articles it may include occasional dialogic interventions. It also includes the rhetorical mode, or text type, according to the authors. The overall rhetorical mode is expository in news articles, while it is usually persuasive or argumentative in editorials. As to the textual dimensions according to which texts can be classified into types (Biber 1988), news articles would be examples of informational production while editorials would be examples of involved production. The final contrastive sample collected consists of a total of 32 texts, distributed in two groups: 16 news articles (8 English and 8 Spanish) and 16 editorials (8 English and 8 Spanish). The bilingual sample compiled is attached in a CD-ROM as an appendix at the end of the study.
3.2. Methods The unit of analysis used in this study is the complex clause. Therefore all clause complexes occurring in the texts of the bilingual sample were numerated an inserted in tables for the analysis of experiential roles, textual and interpersonal themes and syntactic features of the Thematic Head and PreHead. Lara Moratón Gutiérrez
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The classification of the Theme (Outer theme, Inner theme) upon which the whole analysis is carried out, is done according to the methodology proposed by Lavid et al (in press) that classifies in the outer theme: textual and interpersonal elements and in the inner theme: head and prehead.
For the analysis of the experiential roles selected as Thematic Head and PreHead, a transitivity analysis considering the possible experiential roles (Material, mental, relational, verbal and behavioural) and their associated participants (Actor, Affected, Beneficiary/Recipient, Senser, Carrier, Sayer, Token and Existant) was carried out. In the case of Spanish, where Processes can appear as Preheads, these were tabulated as the choices within the possible experiential roles. For the analysis of the textual and interpersonal Themes, all the elements in the Outer thematic field were inspected and annotated as textual or interpersonal. For the analysis of the syntactic features which characterize Thematic Heads and PreHeads, all the possible realizations were inspected and annotated.
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4. Results This section is divided into four different parts, each focused on the contrastive analysis of the features of the two newspaper genres investigated in this study. Subsection 4.1. presents the results of the contrastive analysis of the preferred experiential elements selected as Thematic Heads and PreHeads in both genres. Subsection 4.2. presents the results of contrastive analysis of the preferred textual and interpersonal thematic elements; finally, subsection 4.3. focuses on the syntactic features which characterize the Thematic Heads and PreHeads.
4.1 Experiential elements as Heads and PreHeads in English and Spanish The analysis is divided into three different sections for the sake of clarity. The first one is the related to the differences posed by editorials and news articles in English, the second one explores the same features in Spanish, and, finally, the third is a contrastive English-Spanish analysis.
4.1.1 English Editorials and News articles This section presents the results of the analysis of the English editorials extracted from The Project Syndicate and the English news articles from the Times online. Figure 1 below shows the selection of the experiential roles found in the analysis of Head and Pre-heads of the thematic field in the texts.
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Figure 1. Experiential roles in English Editorials and News Articles
Table 1 displays the same data as presented in figure 1 but in percentages and adding information about the process types where participants are involved.
English Experiential Roles Editorials
English News articles
Actor
35,34%
38,05%
Affected
6,90%
0,00%
Receiver/Beneficiary
0,00%
0,88%
Verbal
Sayer
4,31%
24,78%
Mental
Senser
6,90%
8,85%
Carrier
33,62%
16,81%
Token
0,86%
1,77%
Existential
Existent
6,90%
0,00%
Process
Process
2,59%
1,77%
Process type
Material
Relational
Table 1. Participants and Process types in English Editorials and News articles
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According to the definitions given in section 3, editorials present the writers opinion on an issue, normally of current interest. On the other hand, news articles strive to remain objective presenting a diversity of opinions, voices, and perspectives of the event, incident, or issue under discussion. Both genres deal with current events, but seen under different perspectives. Accordingly, and in spite of the different rhetorical purposes, material processes are the most frequent types of experiential roles selected in both genres, with no statistical differences between them. Some examples of Actors in Editorial texts are presented below: In The limits of energy innovation (1) A century ago, the world used coal and a relatively small volume of oil at the rate of 0.7 TW, but in 2008 established commercial energies – fossil fuels and primary (water and nuclear) electricity – flow at the rate of nearly 15 TW. (line 10) (2) Obviously, this scale limits the speed with which new prime movers can be introduced to replace any significant share of the old devices. (line 12)
And in Micro Europe (3) Emerging-market countries have increased their share of the world economy, giving them a more important voice in international relations. (5) (4) Indian, Middle Eastern, and other investors are buying up European steel mills and carmakers 13
And some examples of Actors in News articles In the text “Dominique Strauss-Kahn, head of the IMF, escapes dismissal over affair” (5) Dominique Strauss-Kam, the French head of the International Monetary Fund, escaped dismissal for a one-night stand with a subordinate today, but was denounced by board members for a "serious error of judgment." (1) (6) But his reputation took a battering in the statement by the 1M F board, which said the relationship "was regrettable and reflected a serious error of judgment on the part of the managing director."
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In “Dutch Government to inject €10bn of fresh captial into ING savings bank” (7) The Government will buy €10 billion of subordinated bonds in ING using a €20 billion fund set aside for fighting the current crisis. (8) The capital injection will boost ING’s core Tier 1 ratio, a measure of financial strength, from 6.5 per cent to 8 per cent.
By contrast, the difference in the selection of Sayers is statistically significant in both genres (p