ORGAN DONATION: INDIAN NUMBERS Ely Phukan Academic Vice Principal (Science) Jorhat Kendriya Mahavidyalaya Organ donation is a topic much less talked of, especially in India. While people are becoming more and more aware regarding the benefits of Organ Donation, much more sensitization is needed. Organs can be donated both by living donors and deceased donors.

In India, Organ transplantation is regulated by the Transplantation of Human Organs Act, 1994, the Transplantation of human Organs Rules, 1995, amended till 2014; with a ban on commercialization of organ donation, making it a punishable offence. The National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organization ( NOTTO) and Regional Organ and Tissue Transplant Organization ( ROTTO) lays down guidelines and protocols at the national and regional levels respectively. Although India conducts the third highest number of transplantations in absolute numbers, India fails in catering to the needs of most. India has an organ donation rate of only 0.52 per million population. While 1.5-2 Lakh persons need kidney transplantation every year, only around 8000 get one. Of the estimated 10,000 people who need heart transplantation, only around 200 get one. Demand for organ donation is on the rise due to the increased prevalence of lifestyle diseases. Organs like heart and lungs can only be harvested from deceased donors. While deceased donor organ harvesting is much more beneficial, it forms only a small part of the total organ donations in India. As per reports

of the Union Health Ministry, 12,387 organs were harvested all across India in 2021. Only 14% of those were from deceased donors. Most of the living donor organ transplantation were attributed to kidney and liver donations from family members only. There was also a geographical disparity in Deceased Donor Organ Donations,with more than 85% of those concentrated in the states of Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Karnataka. This might be due to the availability of higher centres for organ transplantation in these states. In India, the existing system for organ donation has its pitfalls. A person has to register to be an organ donor. Moreover, the family has to consent to it after death. On the other hand, in countries like Spain, where the donation rate is 49.6 per million population, a person is presumed to be donor unless otherwise specified. Moreover unavailability of transplant coordinators, poor road infrastructure to create green corridor, etc creates huge problems is harvesting deceased donor organs. If all these loopholes are catered to and proper sensitization is achieved, India can go a long way in solving the crisis of organ transplantation.

TECHNICAL INSTRUMENTS (TI) TI is the largest provider of microscopy products. It is an implement designed to perform a specific function in a valid and reliable manner. Instruments is used for data collection, storage, analysis, management or monitoring, while a tool is used to measure, manipulate or fabricate any type of material. The three different types of measuring instruments are electrical, electronic and mechanical instruments. Scientific tools are used to collect information from various sources. So scientific instruments are enabled new discoveries but help to make the production of knowledge more efficient. Scientific instruments are specially designed to measure the subject of research reliability and accurately. It also able to assist in answering the research aims, objectives and research questions, as well as prove or disprove the hypothesis of the study. The selection of a research instrument is very important step in research process. It is used to measure the study variables. On the other hand the musical instruments can enhance the verbal memory, spatial reasoning and literacy skills. Playing of musical instrument makes use of both sides of the brain, which strengthens the memory power. Measurement is an integral part of modern science. It is often considered as a hallmark of the scientific enterprise and a privileged source of knowledge relative to qualitative mode of inquiry. To reduce stress and anxiety, playing a musical instrument can improve the memory and focus, boost the mood and provide a creative outlet for emotion. Dr. Panchali Karmakar Assistant professor Department of Zoology Jorhat Kendriya Mahavidyalaya

HIGH SPEED KNOCKOUT IN THE BRAIN Trisha Rajguru Faculty Department of Zoology, JKM Every time we think of the brain we are filled with wonder. It is an exquisitely made organ, neatly packed and protected by a sturdy and robust skull within which it sits packaged in a skin that allows things to enter and exit in a selective and planned manner. The more we learn about it, the more it defies easy categorisation. It is also the bugbear of reductionists, people who like to say things like “the heart is nothing but a pump”, “the kidney is nothing but a filter” or, more to the point, “the brain is nothing but a computer”. The answer, of course, is that it is and it is not. The mechanisms of operation can turn out to be fundamentally different. The acquisition of information, addressing and storing it and recall are only formally similar but the way some of these are handled by the brain and by the computer are different indeed. Yet, what draws people to make such “nothing but” statements ? I believe it is this formal similarity, or a study of only a part of the whole, which leads to this—quite like the famous case of the six blindfolded people where, each in his own way, was describing the elephant by feeling but one part of it. The brain operates on the basis of measured transport of specific chemical substances across cells and the consequent triggering of electrical signals. Basic perception in the brain and in the central nervous system itself, uses both these modes. When you feel something, it is a consequence of these primary events. Neurophysiology describes the actual way the nerve cells are arranged and connected for their function. Neurochemistry discusses the chemical aspects of the matter while electrophysiology attempts to provide the details of the electrical activities of these cells and tissues. Here too, an

understanding to the brain is attempted at two levels ; one at the molecular, cellular and tissue level which is what much of today’s molecular and cell biologists do. The other level is to approach it as a whole system in its complexity and analyze it, the way a systems engineer or a computer hardware person does. The molecular and cellular level approach is the bottom-up approach while the systems approach is top-down. It is clear that the two approaches complement one another and that a total understanding will come about only when we combine the two. Today, we are yet to understand in detail individual processes and responses in the brain, such as what causes pleasure, what causes pain, or what the detailed steps are when we react or respond to a stimulus. The molecular biologist would say that since many of these are hardwired and genetically determined through genes and the DNA molecule, it is worthwhile to identify the actual chemical molecules involved and the biological steps that lead to some of these aspects of brain function. We seem to be doing a lot of things by instinct, many through experience and quite a few by learning from examples. Some of the tastes that we acquire or experiences that we enjoy are really that—acquired, meaning that we learn to derive pleasure or enjoyment even from substance or stimuli that are not necessarily immediately acceptable. The use of mood-altering drugs for enjoyment is one such. Likewise, to enjoy alcohol is to acquire a taste for it, by first overcoming the initial negative response. Tobacco chewing or smoking is another such example. The first reaction is of distaste or even pain. It is the aftertaste when the nicotine hits the brain cells that the tobacco user starts to enjoy. PLEASURE CENTRES What are these pleasure centres or pain centres in the brain ? On the anatomical or large-scale level physiologists have identified zones, regions or parts of the brain which are largely concerned with feeling, response, activity or the other. Hence, it is said that one hemisphere is the intellectual part while the other hemisphere is the aesthetic part. The processing of signals that reaches from the eye to the brain occurs in the visual cortex and the final result is the perceiving of the object. One can go further down into the cell and molecular

level. Specific molecules and substances are used to tickle the pleasure centres in our brain. This is something that mankind has known since the dawn of civilization. Hemp or bhang, charas or cannabis, as they are called, have been known in Hindu mythology. Persian and Arabic scholars have written about it. Shaik Tafar Shirazi of Iran talks at length about them. The Maratha king Shivaji went a step further and used the tinctured hemp leaf in wine for his enjoyment. The betelnut is hallowed in Hindu, Parsi and Jain scriptures, Social grace demanded that the host offers his guests a few betel leaves and a couple of betel nuts. Likewise is a third narcotic substance which comes from calatropis, called akra or mandara (or madar as the Hindu physician Susruta called it). Then there was this wily custom recorded in colonial books about Indian Ayahs or nannies, who would feed a crying infant a bit of opium so that the child is comforted and goes to sleep. Cocaine comes from Latin America and is perhaps one of the most sought after drugs that soothes the tense mind and dulls one into a sense of relaxation, peace and satisfaction. Modern chemistry and medicine have given us molecules such as amphetamine which acts even faster than cocaine (hence the slang “speed” for this drug). How do these psychoactive drugs act ? THE WAY IT WORKS ! A Research group built on the already known fact that the cocaineamphetamine class of antidepressants and drugs of abuse cross the bloodbrain barrier and interact in the brain with a protein called the dopamine transporter or DAT. Dopamine is an important molecule that acts as a neurotransmitter; it is a chemical in the brain that modulates interaction between neurons or nerve cells. Its accumulation and transport across neurons is important, both in the control of limb movement and in the response to stimuli that offer pleasure or aversion. You can neither have too much of dopamine in a neuron nor too little of it ; the level has to be regulated so that neuronal activity and brain response are appropriately controlled. This protein

called DAT does precisely that. It is able to bind to dopamine and control the amount of available or free dopamine over a function of time and across the tissue. Too much of dopamine can make you hyperactive while too little of it can result in uncoordinate movement of limbs. The North Carolina scientists argued that if we were to remove the dopamine transporter protein completely from the brain cells—would the brain then become hyperactive forever ? The argument is that control in the level of dopamine would then be gone ; this neurotransmitter would then not be carted off but would be available all the time and the individual would be on a constant “high”. To test this idea, they chose to work with the mouse as an experimental animal and resorted to a technology that is referred to as gene knockout. It was possible for them to breed mice which lack DAT by artificially disrupting the gene that produces DAT in the mouse. Lo and behold, these mutant mice which lacked the DAT protein were hyperactive, as if they were under the influence of cocaine or amphetamine all the time. In addition even when these mice were given doses of cocaine they showed no further response.

Naegleria Fowleri : A brain eating parasite Jahnu Baruah Naegleria Fowleri is an amoeba , a microbe with a nucleus. It is one of the smallest lifeforms of earth ranging between 8 micrometers to 15 micrometers. Itis generally found in freshwater ponds , river , lakes , hot springs and also in swimming pools ( if not cleaned properly ). The host for this parasite is human. Before taking human as hosts it feeds upon different types of bacteria. It devours on bacteria by ripping them apart. It has three stages of life, first one is known as cyst stage , secomd one is called flagellated stage and last one is trophozoite stage. It mostly stays in the trophozoite stage. when a person jumps in contaminated water body or comes in contact with water containing this microbe then the microbe enters the person’s nose . after that it proceeds towards the olfactory nerve cells and after that reaches the brain and begins to feed on nerve cells and different parts of brain and they multiply themselves. Neutrophils and other suicide warriors try to destroy these parasites but gets ripped off by them and the parasites devours them too . The amoeba releases different chemicals which leads to destrution of nerve cells and makes it easier for them to devour. The person attacked by this amoeba has barely any chance of survival. One of the drug used to treat infected patient is Miltefosin . The chance of getting infected by naegleria fowleri is very low but not zero.

Blockchain Technology (DecenTralizaTion) By - Adarshajyoti Borah Class - B.Sc. 5th Sem Since from past, we have seen so many inventions and the growth of new techs in the world is really amazing. Internet was 1 st introduced in the year 1983 by Vinton Cerf & Bob Kahn and since then we have not looked back. At present without internet we cannot even imagine that what would happen to our lifestyle. Internet revolutionized the world. Like the internet there is a new technology is arising which is called the blockchain technology. Blockchain was first proposed as a research project in 1991 but came to existence in 2008 to serve as the public distributed ledger, created by an anonymous person named Satoshi Nakamoto. p

Key elements of Blockchain :- Distributed ledger technology Immutable Records No participant can change or tamper with a transaction after it’s been recorded to the shared ledger. If a transaction record includes an error, and both transactions are then visible. Smart contracts To speed transactions, a set of rules-called a smart contract is steered on the block-chain and executed automatically. Consensus Through consensus all parties agree to the network verified transaction. Blockchain has various consensus mechanisms, including proof of stake, multi signature and PBFT (Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance).

Blockchain usability Blockchain can be integrated into multiple areas. At current time the primary use of blockchain is as distributed ledger for digital currencies as crypto currencies such as bitcoin, ethereum, polkadot etc. Every blockchain platform has their unique goal and features and they provide their native coin. A Blockchain’s inherent digital currency which we called as crypto currency. These are decentralized Digital money based on blockchain technology and secured by cryptography. For eg- Polkadot Polkadot network is a blockchain platform which unites and sequels a growing ecosystem of Specialized block-chain called parachains. Apps and services on polkadot can securely communicate across chains, forming the basis for a truly interpretable decentralized web. Fig : Blockchain structure of Polkadot Benefits of Blockchain:- Five important benefits are : Enhances security Our data may sensitive and crucial, and block-chain can significantly changed how our critical information is viewed. By creating a record that can’t be altered and is encrypted end to end, Blockchain helps prevent fraud and unauthorized activity. Information could be stored across a network of

computer rather than a single server, making it difficult for hackers to view data. Greater transparency Without blockchain each organization has to keep a separate database. Because blockchain uses a distributed ledger, transaction and data are recorded identically in multiple locations. Instant traceability Blockchain creates an audit trail that documents the Provence of an asset at step on its journey. With blockchain, it is possible to share data about provenance directly with customers. Increased efficiency and speed Traditional paper-heavy processes are time consuming prone to human, and often required third-party mediation. By stream lining these processes with blockchain transactions can be completed faster and more efficiently. Automation Transaction can be automated with “Smart contracts” which increases the efficiency and speed. Once pre-specified conditions are met, the next step in transaction or process is automatically triggered. Smart contracts reduce human intervention as well as reliance on third parties to verify that terms of a contract have been met. So, that is it, some details about blockchain in brief. The bitcoin is the 1st successful implementation of blockchain. Today, the world has found applications of block-chain technology in several platforms, where the trust without the involvement of centralized authority is derived. The technology will affect every industry in the world including manufacturing, retail, education, transportation, healthcare, and real estate. Companies as Google, IBM, Microsoft, Nestle etc., are all working to become early adoptee of blockchain. Nearly 400 billion dollars across various industries is set to be transformed by blockchain. So, welcome to the world of Blockchain.

Artificial intelligence (AI) Chandan Deuri,6th sem Artificial intelligence (AI) is a rapidly growing field of technology that involves the development of computer systems that can perform tasks that would normally require human intelligence, such as recognizing speech, making decisions, and solving problems.““One of the most well-known applications of AI is in the field of machine learning, which involves training computer systems to learn from data and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed. Machine learning algorithms, such as neural networks and decision trees, are used in a wide range of

applications, including image and speech recognition, natural language processing, and predictive analytics.““Another area of AI research is focused on developing intelligent agents, which are computer systems that can autonomously perceive and act in an environment. Examples of intelligent agents include self-driving cars, robots, and virtual personal assistants. These systems use a combination of machine learning and other AI techniques to make decisions and take actions in real-time.““AI is also being used to improve and automate many industries, including healthcare, finance, transportation, and manufacturing. For example, AI is being used to improve the accuracy of medical diagnoses, to analyze financial data and detect fraud, and to optimize logistics and supply chain management.““However, the development and use of AI also raises ethical and societal issues, such as concerns about job displacement, privacy and security, and bias in decision-making. It is important for researchers, policymakers, and industry leaders to consider these issues and work towards responsible development and deployment of AI.““In conclusion, AI is a rapidly growing field that has the potential to bring significant benefits to society, but also raises important ethical and societal issues. It is crucial that we continue to invest in research and development of AI while also addressing the ethical concerns that it raises.

What in Microbiology? Why it matters? Trishna Rani Saikia B. Sc 2nd sem Microbiology is the study of the biology of Microscopic organisms: - viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, slime molds, and protozoa. The methods used to study and manipulate these minute and mostly unicellular organisms different from those used in most other biological investigation. Recombinant DNA technology uses microorganisms particularly bacteria & virus, to amplify and DNA sequences and generate the encoded

products. Moving genes from one microorganism to another or amplifying them within microorganisms, permits application of microbial skill to solve medical and environmental problems. Many microorganisms are unique among living things in their ability to use gaseous nitrogen from the air for their nutritional requirements, or to degrade complex macro molecules in such materials as wood. By rearranging the genes that control these and other processes, scientist seeks to engineer microorganisms that will process waste, fertilize agriculture land, produce desirable bio molecules and solve other problems inexpensively and safely. The study of microbiology helps us to understand our world and our place within it. The microbiology society is a membership charity for scientist interested in Microbes, their effects and their practical uses. It is one of the largest microbiology societies in Europe with a worldwide membership based in universities, industry, hospital, research institute and schools.

Introduction:- The cell is the basic unit of life. The life of all organisms including man starts from a single cell and the body is a consortium of individual cells of specific functions and feature working in a coordinated manner. Each cell is an amazing world several biochemical activities –it can assimilate nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized functions, and reproduce as necessary. Even more amazing is that each cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of these activities. The largest known cell is an Ostrich egg. There are millions of different types of cells and many organisms such as microscope amoeba and bacteria are single celled. Microscope opened up new doors in the field of biology by allowing scientists to gaze into the cellular world. Credit for the first compound microscope is usually given to Zacharias Janssen, of Middleburg Holland, around the year 1595. English scientist Robert Hooke, in 1665 first observe cells and coined the term “Cell “in the slice of cork through a microscope. Actually, Hooke only observed cell walls because cork cells are dead and without cytoplasmic contents. The term came from the Latin word cella which means “store room” or “small container”. At the same time, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) pioneered the invention of one of the best microscopes. Leeuwenhoek was the 1 st to observe draw and describe the variety of living organisms, including bacteria gliding in saliva, one-celled organisms cavorting in pond water and sperm swimming in semen. Cell biologists have defined cells in many ways: · According to Robert Hooke(1635-1736)- “The cell is the structural and functional unit of the living matter and is capable of carrying on the processes of C E L L NIBEDITA RAY

life independently.” · Loewly and siekvitz defined cell “ as a unit of bilogical activity delimited by a semipermeable membrane and capable, of self reproduction in a medium free of other living systems.” · “cell is the unit of structure and function in plants and animals.” · “cell is the smallest unit of living organisms capable of independent existence.” · “ cell is the smallest organized unit of living organism capable of prolonged independent existence and replacement of its products in a suitable environment.” · “ cell is the simplest integrated organization in living system capable of prolonged independent survival.” · “ The cell is considered as a definite unit of living substance made up of a mass of protoplasm called the cytoplasm, containing a nucleus and surrounded by the plasma membrane.” Characteristics of cell Cell possess the qualities of all living organisms, some of the characteristics of the cells are as follows: 1.Respiration: The cell has the ability to use oxygen brought from the lungs by the blood. It also removes the gaseous waste product carbon dioxide to the blood for its functions and survival. 2.Ingestion and Assimilation: cell is a very active unit in which the nourishing food materials eaten by man are absorbed and assimilated. The cell is capable of absorbing fluids and dissolved substances directly through the cell membrane. 3.Growth and Repair: Nutrition is essential for the growth and repair of cells. The food materials like amino acids are used by the cell to synthesize new protoplasm, by which the cell increases in size

4.Metabolism: The cell needs energy fro its activities like glandular secretion , movement and nervous activity. Both anabolic and catabolic processes are going on in the cell which is known as metabolism. 5.Excretion: The cell is able to discharge unused and waste materials through cell membrane. Basic concepts of cell · The cell is the basic unit of life · All living organisms are composed of cells they may be unicellular or multi-cellular iii) cell arise from pre-existing cells. iv) Over time and with the development of the electron microscope, the theory has continued to evolve. v) The cell is structural and functional unit of all living thing. When cell divide, the hereditary information they contain, as DNA , is passed from cell to cell. vi) Energy flow (metabolism) occurs within cells. vii) All cells have basically the same chemical composition. viii) The activity of the organism is determined by the activity of the independent cells Types of Cell : a) Prokaryotic cells : Cells which do not have a well define nucleus are called prokaryotic cells. The nuclear region in these cells is not bound by nuclear membrane. Instead of cytoplasm called the nucleoid. The membrane bound cytoplasmic organelles are also absent in them. The only organelle present in them is ribosome. In photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteris chlorophyll is found associated with membrane wsicles.

Eg- Bacteria, Cyanobacteria. b) Eukaryotic cells : Cells which have double membrane and plasma membrane devoid of respiratory enzymes. These cells have linear DNA associated with proteins farming two to many chromosomes enclosed by a nuclear envelope. Hence proper well define nucleus is present 805 Ribosomes are present only in eukaryotic. Many membrane bound organelles and sap vacuoles. They form mitotic apparatus in cell division undergoes meiosis. Eg- Lysosomes, Nucleus, Mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum On the basis of presence of certain specialized organelles having specific functions like chloroplast, eukaryotic cells are of 2 types : I) Plant cell II) Animal cell I) Plant cell: Plant cells are the basic unit of life in organisms of the kingdom plantae. They are eukaryotic cells, which have a true nucleus along with specialized structures called organelles that carry out different function. Plant cells have special organelles called chloroplasts which create sugar i.e photosyntheesis. II) Animal cell: Animal cells are the basic unit of life in organisms of the kingdom Animalia. They are eukaryotic cells, meaning that have a true nucleus and specialized structures called organelles that carry out different functions.

Science And Technology Diya Sarkar B.Sc 1st Sem Dept. of Zoology Science and technology are important parts of our day to day life. We get up in the morning from the ringing of our alarm clock and go to bed at night after switching our tights off. All these luxuries that we are able to afford are a resultant of science and technology. Most importantly how we can do all this in a short time are because of the advancement of science and technology only.

Essentially, science and technology have introduced us to the establishment of modern civilization. This development contributes greatly to almost every aspect of our daily life. Hence, people get the chance to enjoy these results, which make our lives more relaxed and pleasurable. It is just very hard to imagine our life without science and technology. Indeed our existence itself depends on it now. Every day new technologies are coming up which are making human life easier and more comfortable. Thus we live in an era of “Science”. If we think about it there are numerous benefits of science and technology. They range from the little things to the big ones. For instance, the morning paper which we read that delivers us reliable information is a result of scientific progress. In addition, the electrical devices which out which life is hard to imagine like a refrigerator, AC, microwave and more are a result of techno logical advancement. Furthermore, if we look at the transport scenario, we notice how science and technology play a major role Here as well. We can quickly reach the other part of the earth within hours, all thanks to advancing technology. In addition, science and technology have enabled man to look further than our planet. The discovery of new planets and the establishment of satellite in space is because of the very same science and technology. It has made an impact on medical and agricultural fields as well. The various curves being discovered from diseases have saved millions of lives through science. It has on hanad the production of different crops benefitting the farmers largely.

Spiny lizards Aslesha Borbaruah B. Sc 6th sem Spiny lizards is a common name for the genus Sceloporus in the family Phrynosomatidae. The genus is endemic to North America, with various species ranging from New York, to Washington, and one occurring as far south as northern Panama.The greatest diversity is found in Mexico. This genus includes some of the most commonly seen lizards in the United States. Other common names for lizards in this genus include fence lizards, scaly lizards, bunchgrass lizards, and swifts.“ Indian Spiny-tailed Lizard Saara hardwickii, one of more than 230 lizard species found in India, has been a silent victim of illicit wildlife trade activities for too long. This herbivorous, solitary, burrow-dwelling reptile, found in the arid and semi-arid regions of north-western India, is targeted for its meat which is consumed as a delicacy by locals and for the oil obtained from its skin and tail that is sold as a cure for various ailments.“ It is listed in Schedule II of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which prohibits its hunting, trade or any other form of exploitation. It is locally extinct in Uttar Pradesh, and the population in Madhya Pradesh is declining. Presently, the species is primarily restricted to the desert regions of northwest India.Despite the legal protection, the Indian Spinytailed Lizard is targeted by poachers and wildlife traffickers across its range in India. Rajasthan has emerged as a central hub for poaching and trading of the Indian Spiny-tailed Lizard from where derivatives (such as oil) are smuggled to Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, New Delhi, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh.“ Live Indian Spiny-tailed Lizards have been found in seizures reported at Desert National Park in Rajasthan. Other seizures of both live and dead lizards and their products have been reported in Bangalore (Karnataka) and Mumbai (Maharashtra). Both locations are outside the species' natural range, indicating that the demand for its product is driving its trafficking.TRAFFIC and WWF-India's new Factsheet on Indian Spiny-tailed Lizard in illegal wildlife trade, released today, highlights its ongoing illicit trade and provides information about the species to raise awareness and direct efforts toward its protection.

Technology in healthcare Gourav Thapa B.Sc. 1st sem . Over the past few years, technology has become a major factor of competition in the entire healthcare industry. The quality of facilities plays an important role in shaping healthcare programs due to it’s low price, precise detection and resolution technology complements to the needs of the hospital in an effective way. Technology development in the field of healthcare has saved numerous points and has improved the quality of life immensely. Digitalization of medical records that is electronic health record has replaced traditional and outdated paper-based

health records. This helps patients to get access to their health record at just a click of button. EHR is easy to access from any close by medical facility this contributes to greater patient care. It is very much useful for doctors to access non local patients too. Storing enormous medical data on the cloud makes it easier to access as well as process. This storage space requires fewer instruments and is safer and secure and then storing paper-based medical records that have a possibility of getting stolen, misplaced or damaged. The medical-record stored on cloud storage can be used by healthcare patients and professionals to access it and use apps from webenabled device anywhere from the world. Cloud storage of medical data has resulted in following benefits. 1.Lower healthcare cost. 2.Prediction of epidemics. 3.Promote better efficiency, etc. Technology not only has this much limited benefits in the healthcare sector but has many. Thus, technology is seen to be highly beneficial partner with mankind with increasing development from time to time. Its influence offer new growth in healthcare industry.

Global warming The last few decades have been monumental when it comes to technological development. Humans have developed systems and machines that make our lives easier. Especially during the early modern period from the early 16th century to as far as the late 18the century, also commonly referred to as “The Scientific Revolution” or “The Enlightenment”, modern technology leapt ahead in development in such a short time frame compared to all of history“ systems and machines that make our lives easier. Especially during the early modern period from the early 16th century to as far as the late 18the century, also commonly referred to as “The Scientific Revolution” or “The Enlightenment”, modern technology leapt ahead in development in such a short time frame compared to all of historyHowever, with the development of society, there has been a severe detriment to the quality of Earth’s environment. One of the most massive threats to the condition of the planet is climate change. Inadequate research and reckless misuse of natural resources are some of the core reaRashmi Rekha Doley BSc. 1st Semester,Zoology

sons for the deteriorating condition of the planet.To understand the concept of Global Warming and its causes and effects, we need to take an in-depth look into many factors that affect the temperature of the planet and what that means for the future of the world. Here is an objective look at the topic of Global Warming and other important related topics.““What is Climate Change?Ever since the industrial and scientific revolution, Earth is slowly being used up for its resources. Moreover, the onset of the exponential increase in the world’s population is also very taxing on the environment. Simply put, as the need for consumption of the population increases, both the utilisation of natural resources and the waste generated from the use of said resources have also increased massively. One of the main results of this over the many years has become climate change. Climate change is not just the rise or fall of temperature of different areas of the world; it is also a change in the rain cycles, wind patterns, cyclone frequencies, sea levels, etc. It affects all major life groups on the planet in some way or the other.““ What is Global Warming?Global Warming is often considered an effect of Climate change. Global Warming is the rapid increase in the temperature of the Earth’s environment that is causing many life-threatening issues to arise.Global Warming is a dangerous effect on our environment that we are facing these days. Rapid

industrialization, increase in the population growth and pollution are causing a rise in Global Warming. Global Warming refers to the increase in the average temperature of the earth's surface during the last century. One of the reasons why Global Warming is dangerous is because it disturbs the overall ecology of the planet. This results in floods, famine, cyclones and other issues. There are many causes and results of this warming and is a danger for the existence of life on earth.The sign of Global Warming is already visible with many natural phenomena happening around globally, affecting each living species.Here is some data that can help to give a more precise understanding of the reality of Global Warming in the last few years:On average, the world’s temperature is about 1.5°C higher than during the start of the industrial revolution in the late 1700s. That may not seem a lot to you, but that is an average estimate. This number is only increasing. Many parts of the world face far more severe changes in temperature that affect the planet’s overall health.In 1950, the world’s CO2 emissions were at 6 billion tonnes which had quadrupled in volume until 1990, just 40 years later to 22 billion tonnes. Not only that, unchecked CO2 emissions today have reached a whopping 35 billion tonnes.The most evident causes of Global Warming are industrialization, urbanization, deforestation, and sophisticated human activities.

These human activities have led to an increase in the emission of Greenhouse Gases, including CO2, Nitrous Oxide, Methane, and others.Causes of Global WarmingA variety of reasons causes Global Warming. Some of which can be controlled personally by individuals but others are only expected to be solved by communities and the world leaders and activists at the global level.Many scientists believe the main four reasons for Global Warming, according to recent studies, are:Greenhouse gasesDeforestationPollutionPer capita carbon emissionsGlobal Warming is certainly an alarming situation, which is causing a significant impact on life existence. Extreme Global Warming is resulting in natural calamities, which is quite evident happening around. One of the reasons behind Global Warming is the extreme release of greenhouse gases stuck on the earth surface, resulting in the temperature increase.Similarly, volcanoes are also leading to Global Warming because they spew too much CO2 in the air. One of the significant causes behind Global Warming is the increase in the population. This increase in the population also results in air pollution. Automobiles release a lot of CO2, which remains stuck in the earth.This increase in the population is also leading to deforestation, which further results in Global Warming. More and more trees are being cut, increasing the concentration of CO2.The

greenhouse is the natural process where the sunlight passes through the area, thus warming the earth's surface. The earth surface releases energy in the form of heat in the atmosphere maintaining the balance with the incoming energy. Global Warming depletes the ozone layer leading to the doom's day.There is a clear indication that the increase in Global Warming will lead to the complete extinction of life from the earth surface.““Solution for Global““ WarmingGlobal Warming can not be blamed on individuals; however, it can be tackled and maintained from worsening starting at the individual level. Of course, industries and multinational conglomerates have higher carbon emissions levels than an average citizen. Still, activism and community effort are the only feasible ways to control the worsening state of Global Warming.Additionally, at the state or government level, world leaders need to create concrete plans and step programmes to ensure that no further harm is being caused to the environment in general.Although we are almost late in slowing down the Global Warming rate, it is crucial to find the right solution. From individuals to governments, everyone has to work upon a solution for Global Warming. Controlling pollution, population and use of natural resources are some of the factors to consider. Switching over to the electric and hybrid car is the best way to bring down the carbon

dioxide.As a citizen, it is best to switch over to the hybrid car and to use public transport. This will reduce pollution and congestion. Another significant contribution you can make is to minimize the use of plastic. Plastic is the primary cause of Global Warming taking years to recycle.Deforestation is another thing to consider that will help in controlling Global Warming. Planting of more trees should be encouraged to make the environment go green.Industrialization should be under certain norms. The building of industries should be banned in green zones affecting plants and species. Hefty penalties should be levied on such sectors contributing towards Global Warming.““Effects of Global____““ WarmingGlobal Warming is a real problem that many want to prove as a hoax for their political benefit. However, as aware citizens of the world, we must make sure only the truth is presented in the media.Various parts of the environment, both flora and fauna, are directly adversely affected by the damages caused by Global Warming. Wildlife being in danger is ultimately a serious threat to the survival of humanity as we know it and its future.The effect of Global Warming is widely seen in this decade. Glacier retreat and arctic shrinkage are the two common phenomena seen. Glaciers are melting in a fast way. These are pure examples of climate change.Rise in sea level is another significant effect of

Global Warming. This sea-level rise is leading to floods in low-lying areas. Extreme weather conditions are witnessed in many countries. Unseasonal rainfall, extreme heat and cold, wildfires and others are common every year. The number of these cases is increasing. This will indeed imbalance the ecosystem bringing the result of the extinction of species.The effect of Global Warming is widely seen in this decade. Glacier retreat and arctic shrinkage are the two common phenomena seen. Glaciers are melting in a fast way. These are pure examples of climate change.Rise in sea level is another significant effect of Global Warming. This sea-level rise is leading to floods in low-lying areas. Extreme weather conditions are witnessed in many countries. Unseasonal rainfall, extreme heat and cold, wildfires and others are common every year. The number of these cases is increasing. This will indeed imbalance the ecosystem bringing the result of the extinction of species.Similarly, marine life is also widely getting affected due to the increase in Global Warming. This is resulting in the death of marine species and other issues. Moreover, changes are expected in coral reefs, which are going to face the end in coming years.These effects will take a steep rise in coming years, bringing the expansion of species to a halt. Moreover, humans too will witness the negative impact of Global Warming in the end.

Eradication of Smallpox. Nikita Goyari B.Sc. 1st sem The origin of smallpox is unknown. The finding of smallpox like rashes on Egyptian and has existed for at least 3000 years. The earliest written description of a disease like smallpox appeared in China in the 4th century Common Era. It also appeared in India in the 7th century and in Asia Minor in the 10th century. Historians trace the global spread of smallpox to the growth of civilizations and exploration. spreading trade routes over the centuries also led to the spread of disease. Smallpox was a terrible disease. On average, 3 out of every 10 people who got it died. People who survived usually had scars, which were sometimes severe. One of the first methods for controlling smallpox was variolation, a process named after the virus that causes smallpox ‘variola virus’. During variolation, people who had never had smallpox were exposed

to material from smallpox sores. After variolation, people usually developed the symptoms associated with smallpox, such as fever and a rash. The basis for vaccination began in 1796 ,when the English doctor Edward Jenner noticed that milkmaids who had gotten cowpox were protected from smallpox. Dr. Jenner, after knowing this he guessed that exposure to cowpox could be used to protect against smallpox. To test his theory, Dr. Jenner took material from a cowpox sore on milkmaid Sarah Nelmes’ hand and inoculated it into the arm of James Phipps, the 9-year-old son of Jenner’s gardener. Months later, Jenner exposed Phipps several times to variola virus, but Phipps never developed smallpox. More experiments followed, and, in 1801, Jenner published his treatise “ON THE ORIGIN OF THE VACCINE INOCLUATION.” Almost after two centuries after Jenner hoped that vaccination could annihilate smallpox, the 33rd World Health Assembly declared the world free of this disease on May 8, 1980. Many people considered smallpox eradication to be the biggest achievement in international public health. Eradication of smallpox in India :- When smallpox swamped the world in 20th century , it was one of the most lethal illnesses even known to humanity, killing millions

of people before being officially eradication in 1980. Smallpox, which is believed to have existed for 3,000 years with a 30% fatality rate, was annihilated through a triumphant vaccination program.One of the most challenging locations for the global smallpox eradication mission was India. Here smallpox was particularly virulent : the country accounted for 60% of the world’s smallpox cases and it killed one out of every four people. In 1974, the dark clouds of catastrophe over India, as the country witnessed the worst smallpox epidemic of the century. It was a gruelling task to vaccinate the then population of 609 million Indians.The pool of challenges was too colossal for India to swim in-high population density in many areas, great mobility and sporadic huge gatherings, and smaller festivals or fairs provided optimal circumstances for transmission. Long after liquid vaccination had been phase out in other nations, India continued to use it.In many nations, vaccinating 80% of the population within five years was thought to be enough to stop smallpox from spreading .

CLimatE ChangE Gauranga Bora B. Sc 5th sem Climate change science is the study of the Earth’s changing atmospheric composition and the resulting climate and environmental impacts worldwide. Since the Industrial Revolution, the planet has experienced a massive spike in emissions of heattrapping greenhouse gases (GHGs) produced by human activities, from about 280 parts per million, to more than 400 ppm. This rise in emissions has led to a corresponding rise in the global atmospheric concentrations of these GHG pollutants. As humans increase the volume of climate pollutants in the atmosphere, average global temperatures rise. This is because of the greenhouse effect: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and other greenhouse gases trap heat from the sun, making the atmosphere warmer than it otherwise would be. The greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible: without it, the average temperature on Earth would be a mere 0 degrees Fahrenheit (instead of the 58.3 degrees Fahrenheit recorded in 2013). But too much greenhouse gas in the atmosphere can destabilize its balance, leading to much higher global temperatures and disruptive climate change.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Shantanu Borah, B.Sc. 2nd Sem DNA was first isolate by the Swiss physician and biologist Friedrich Miescher in 1869. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix carrying genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids. Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates, nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotide as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA. The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, pyrimidines and purines. Both strands of double

stranded DNA store the same biological information. This information is replicated when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences. The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparellel. Attached to sugar is one of the four types of nucleobases. It is the sequence of these four nucleobase along the backbone that encodes genetic information. RNA Strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription where DNA bases are exchanged for their corresponding bases except in the case of thymine (T), for which RNA substitutes Uracil (U). Under the genetic code, these RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation. With eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structure called chromosomes. Before typical cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing a complete set of chromosomes for each daughter cell. Eukaryotic organisms store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus as nuclear DNA, and some in the mitochondria as mitochondrial DNA or in chloroplast as chloroplast DNA. In contrast, prokaryotes store their DNA only in the cytoplasm, in circular chromosomes. Within eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins, such as histones, compact and organize DNA. The compacting structure guides the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.

Carbon credit Puja Payeng, B. Sc 2nd sem Global warming is considered to be a very perious threat to humanity. It has been established that global warming is a result of accumulation of the so called Green House Gases (GHG) carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydroflourocarbons, perfiourocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride Human activity has resulted in increased emission of these gases into the atmosphere. These gases have the ability to trap heat of the sun and thereby increase the earth's average temperature leading to climatic change. Efforts are on to find ways to mitigate the growth in concentration of the GHGs in the earth's atmosphere. In December 1997, 160 countries of the world met at Kyoto, Japan to discuss the issue and agreed to reduce the emission of the GHGs. An agreement was signed to reduce the GHG level 5.2% below the 1990 level by the year 2012. This agreement is known as Kyoto Protocol. As Trading (IET), per the provisions of this agreement the countries of the world are divided into two categories: developed countries, referred to as Annex I countries (who have accepted strict GHG emission reduction obligations) and developing or underdeveloped countries, referred to as Non-Annex I countries (who have no GHG emission reduction obligation). Our country is included in the Non Annex 1 category and so is not under any obligation to reduce the GHG emissions. The Kyoto protocol sets quotas of green house gases that a country can produce. The quantity of the assigned amount is denominated in individual units called Assigned Amount Units (AAU's)

each of which represents an allowance to emit one metric tonne of carbon dioxide or its equivalent and these are entered into the country's national registry, in turn, these countries set quotas for these emissions to business establishments and industries generally termed operators Countries manage this through their national registries which are required to be validated and monitored for compliance by the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Each operator is assigned quotas for GHG emission in the form of some units called carbon credit. A carbon credit gives the owner the right to emit one metric tonne of carbon dioxide or the equivalent of other green house gas. Businesses that emit less GHGs than their quotas can sell their unused allowance as carbon credits while those who exceed their quotas can buy the extra allowance as credits, privately or in the open market. The Kyoto Protocol provides for three mechanisms that enable the developed countries or the operators in these countries with quantified emission limits and reduction commitments to gain green house gas decline credits: These mechanisms are: Joint Implementation (I). Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and International EmissionUnder joint implementation (1) a developed country with relatively high cost of domestic GHG reduction can invest in projects for reduction of green house emission in another developed country. For example, if two countries have been allotted the quota of 5 percent cut each in carbon emission, after mutual understanding one country may curtail only 4 percent carbon emission while the second country will have to curtail it by 6 percent and can claim royalty for the additional 1 percent cut from the first country. As per this provision of the Kyoto Protocol Russia and Japan have struck such a deal between them. Japan found it difficult to implement the quota of 6 pc

cut in carbon emission from 1990 level. On the other hand, Russia was in a position to cut the carbon emission above its target. Under the agreement Japanese companies would invest in 20 Russian Power Plants and industries to cut green house emission. These reduction of Russian emission would be credited to the Japanese reduction quota Under the Clean Development Mechanism. “ (COM) a developed country can take up a green house pas reduction project in a developing country where the cast of greenhouse gas reduction project is usually much lower. The developed country would be given credits for meeting its emisson reduction targets, while the developing country would receive the capta and clean technology to carry out the project. Under International Emission Trading (ET) countries can trade in the international carbon credit market Countries with surgius credits can sell them to countries that are exceeding their emission targets. As a result of the Kyoto protocol, carbon has become a tradable commodity with an associated value. One tonne of carbon dioxide reduced through a CDM Project when certified by a designated operational entity is known as a Certified Emission Reduction (CER) and can be traded. A global Executive Board supervises carbon trading through some authonzed certification agencies in various countries. In in the National Designated Authority for CDM Projects is the Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi Countries within the European Union has adopted the carbon trading mecham under its European Trading Scheme (UETS) with Curepean Commission as its validating authority in line with the Stock Exchange, exchanges trading in carbon allowances have been set Currently there are six such exchanges: the Chicago Climate change, Cumpran Climate Exchange, NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe, Power next Commodity Exchange Bratislava and the

European Energy Exchange It is worth mentioning that carbon sequestration, je the process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir) project through Land use, Land use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) can cam carbon credits under the COM. As per provisions of the Kyoto Protocol, in India Afforestation and Beforestation (A&R) activities are Eligible for CDM Projects Forests have been defined a minimum land area of 0.05 to 1.0 hs with tree Lover of more than 10% and the trees to reach a mum height uf 2.050m at maturity. Afforestation is carversion of land that has not been a forest for at least 50 years and reforestations ting forest on lands not having been a forest since 211 1989. Thus the definition of forest is crucialboth in selection of sites for the CDM projects as well as in creating the end products Apofurests when raised with a mere 20% treedensity will be considered as creation of forests through afforestation and thus can eat carbon credits. This growing a few trees with agricultural crop can exname for the farmers in india several research organizations carried out studies in this direction. It has been found that Popter and Eucalyptus trees have potential to sequester carbon and so planting these trees in agricultural land can generate much income for the farmers. Thus A&R projects offer huge potential for diversifying indian agriculture and increasing the livelihood base of the Indian farmers. Several indian companies such as ITC IK Paper Mills, Orient Paper Mills, tech etc. are raising large agroforestry plantations of farmers land. These plantations can claim CDM benefit and so can generate extra income for the farmers. Methods of calculating the amount of carbon sequestered by a plantation are not very simple and are beyond the scope of this article. A study undertaken in Roopnagar district of Punjab indicated that Poplar and Eucalyptus plantation could sequester an average of 76.98 tonnes of carton per hectare. To

meet the demands of the ever inovasing population of the world more and more industies are being set up leading to high emission levels of GHG Consequently number of companies willing to buy arben credits is on the increase pushing the grue of one carbon credit above 100 US Dollars india must learn to exploit this global situation. Since GHG mitigation projects generate carbon credits, we should use this to our advantage. Use of fossil fuels leads to production of GHGs. So, we must eam to reduce the use at fostul and look for alternative source at energy. Development of cleaner machinery is another approach to mitigate GHG emissions. Above all, we must exploit the unrealized potential of carbon sequestration through agroforestry and frame policies based on rigorous research in this direction. It is not very difficult to find several foreign collaborators willing to invest millions of dollars in agricultural infrastructure and buy carbon credits at a discounted rate. Such ventures will help in creating a clean endronment and at the same time will help in economic upliftment of the poor masses and the country as a whole.

The Great Mathematicians of India Ankita Gogoi You will be shocked to know that most of the modern day mathematic's concept and theorems where discovered by the Indian mathematician way before the rest of the world, but due to the lack of proper documentation, they did not have got their actual honour. For example, we know about the great mathematician Euclid, we are well known by his fabulous work. Lets talk about the contribution of many great ancient Indian mathematicians, one of them is Baudhyan, Baudhyan discovered many theorems and concepts of mathematics which were later redisovered by the western world. For eg - Baudhyan discovered the value of p, from which we can calculate the circumference and area of any circle, he wrote a book named 'Sulva sutra', in which he mentioned about an equation similar to Phythagoras theorem way before Phythagoras.““Another Great mathematician of ancient times from India was Aryabhatta. You may have heard of him as he calculated the value of p (pie). According to him the approximate value of p must be 3.1416. Aryabatta was a great Math-