New Syllabus

Text Reading and Reflections As per Latest Syllabus of H.P. University Shimla

Dr. Sanjeev Kumar M.A., M.Ed., Ph.D.

S Samar Publications

THIS BOOK, OR ANY PART THEREOF, MAY NOT BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM WITHOUT THE WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE PUBLISHER AND THE AUTHOR. First Edition : Sept., 2016

Price : 238/-

Published by : Dr. Sanjeev Sharma

S Samar Publication, Dharamshala Distt. Kangra H.P. Pin : 176215 M. No. +91 88945-01002 (H.P.) +91 8194948325 (Pb.) E-mail. [email protected]

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Preface It is matter of great pleasure for me while bringing Text Reading and Reflections for the students of B.Ed. Paper Vth according to Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla as per new Syllabus. It is complete book of the whole syllabus of this course. In this book, I have given different types of questions Long answer type questions, Short answer type questions. Every topic has carefully planned. I am thankful to S Samar Publication for his effort to provide the book with nice get up. With a great sense of gratitude, I express my thanks to Gourav Sharma and his team members Mr. Anil, Mr. Rakesh Rana and Mr. Vinod for their inspiration, co-operation, guidance which timely helped me. I have remember them for their very kindly going through the present book and making very valuable suggestions during the work. Any suggestion for the improvement of book from the Teachers and Students will be highly appreciated. -Author

Syllabus Paper V TEXT READING AND REFLECTIONS Marks: 50 (40 + 10) UNIT—I Analytical and Critical Thinking | Analytical and Critical Thinking: Meaning and Importance for Reading and Writing. | Role of Critical Reading and Critical Thinking in Enhancing Writing Skills. | Ways of Developing Reading Skills: Importance of Developing Reading Skills; Reading Aloud and Silent Reading; Extensive Reading; Study Skills including using Thesauras, Dictionary, Encyclopedia. | Ways of developing Writing Skills: Formal and Informal Writing (such as Poetry, Short Story, Letter, Diary, Notices, Articles, Reports, Dialogue, Speech and Advertisement. UNIT—II Pedagogies of Reading and Writing | Models of Teaching, Models for Assessing the components of Reading (Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, Fluency, Vocabulary, and Text Comprehension). | Instructional Approaches for Developing Students’ Concepts of Grammar, Punctuation, Spelling and Handwriting. | Responding to the Texts: Approach to Response Based Study (The Core of the Text, Personal Connection, Reading Beyond the Text, Revisiting the Text). | Responding to the Contexts: Sharing Responses (Purpose of Sharing, Role of the Teacher and Benefits of Sharing).

Contents Unit-I CHAPTER—1 1-56 Critical Thinking : Meaning and Importance of Reading and Writing and Role of Critical Reading, Critical Thinking in Enhancing Writing Skills 1.1. Concept of Critical Thinking 3-16 1.1.1. Importance and Benefits of Critical Thinking Skill 5-9 1.1.2. Teaching of Critical Thinking 9-11 1.1.3. Critical Thinking and Academic Reading 11-12 1.1.4. Critical Thinking and Academic Writing 12-13 1.1.5. Difference between Descriptive analytical Critical Writing 14-16 1.2. Concept of Reading and Writing 16-50 1.2.1. Concept of Reading 17-22 1.2.1.1. Mechanics of Reading 22-24 1.2.1.2. Importance of Reading 24-25 1.2.1.3. Process of Learning, Reading 25-26 1.2.1.4. Methods of Teaching, Reading to beginners 27-33 1.2.1.5. Some Difficulties in Reading 33-34 1.2.2. Concept of Writing 34-37 1.2.2.1. Meaning and Definitions of Writing Skill 37-38 1.2.2.2. Importance and Principles of Writing 38-40 1.2.2.3. Mechanics of Writing 40-42 1.2.2.4. Considerations for Teaching Writing to beginners 42-44 1.2.2.5. Essential of Good Handwriting 44-45 1.2.2.6. Dynamics of Writing 45-46 1.2.2.7. Methods of Teaching Writing 46-50 1.3. Role of Critical Reading and Critical Thinking in Enchancing Writing Skill 50-55

Chapter—2 57-89 Ways of Developing Reading Skills 2.1. Concept of Developing Reading Skills 57-65 2.1.1. Different Stages of Teaching, Reading Skill 60-63 2.1.2. Aims of Teaching Reading 63-64 2.1.3. Need of Developing Reading Skill 64-65 2.2. Importance of Developing Reading Skill 66-68 2.3. Types of Reading Skill 69-87 2.3.1. Loud Reading 69-73 2.3.2. Silent Learning 73-78 2.3.3. Intensive Reading 78-79 2.3.4. Extensive Reading 79-83 2.3.5. Supplementary Reading 83 2.3.6. Study Skills including using the sources of Dictionary Encyclopedia 83 2.3.6.1. Use of Thesaures 83-85 2.3.6.2. Use of Dictionary 85-87 2.3.6.3. Encyclopedia 87 2.4. Developing the Reading Habits of the Students 87-89 Chapter—3 90-126 Ways of Developing Writing Skills 3.1. Concept of Developing Writing Skills 91-93 3.2. Need and Importance for the Development of Writing Skill 93-96 3.3. Objectives of the Development of the Writing Skill 96-97 3.4. Qualities of the Writing Skill 97-100 3.5. Stages of Writing Skill 101-103 3.6. Formal and Informal Writing Skills 103-125 3.6.1. Skill of Story Writing 103 3.6.2. Skills of Letter Writing 103-105 3.6.3. Skills of Diary Writing 105-107 3.6.4. Skills of Notice Writing 108-115

3.6.5. 3.6.6. 3.6.7. 3.6.8.

Skills of Articles Writing 115-120 Skill of Report Writing 120-121 Skill of Dialogue Writing 121 Other Independent and Guided Writing Skill 121-125 Unit-II Chapter—4 127-182 Model of Teaching and Models for Assessing The Components of Reading 4.1. Instructional Models : Teaching and Thinking Skills 129-140 4.2. Concept of Teaching Models 140-159 4.2.1. Functions and Sources of Teaching 143-145 4.2.2. Strategies and Models for Teachers 146-148 4.2.3. Reflective Practice and Models of Teaching 148-150 4.2.4. Characteristics and Assumptions of Models of Teaching 150-152 4.2.5. Need Types and Basic Elements of Teaching Models 152-159 4.3. Concept of Attainment Model of Teaching 159-166 4.4. Advance Organizer Model 166-170 4.5. Problem Solving Model 170-177 4.6. Essential Conponents of Reading 177-181 4.6.1. Phonemic Awareness 178-179 4.6.2. Phonics 179 4.6.3. Fluency 179-180 4.6.4. Vocabulary 180-181 4.6.5. Reading Comprehension 181 Chapter—5 183-232 Instructural Approaches for Developing Students : Concept of Grammar, Punctuation, Spelling and Handwriting 5.1. Concept of Grammar 183-198 5.1.1. Salient Feature of grammar 186-187

5.1.2. Aims and Objectives of Teaching Grammar 187-188 5.1.3. Types of Grammar 188-190 5.1.4. Difference between Formal and functional Grammar 191-192 5.1.5. Advantages of Teaching Grammar 192-194 5.1.6. Methods of Teaching Grammar 195-198 5.2. Concept of Punctuation 198-203 5.3. Concept of Spelling 203-216 5.3.1. Development of Spelling in Students 204-205 5.3.2. Objectives of Teaching Spelling 205-207 5.3.3. How to spell Correctly 207-210 5.3.4. Causes of Impurities spellings 210-216 5.4. Handwriting 216-217 5.5. Teaching of Vocabulary 217-231 5.5.1. Importance of Vocabulary Teaching 219 5.5.2. Types of Vocabulary 219-220 5.5.3. Selection and gradation of Vocabulary 220-222 5.5.4. Different approaches for teaching vocabulary 222-223 5.5.5. Nature and Kinds of Words 223-229 5.5.6. Expansion of Vocabulary 230-231 Chapter 6 233-247 Responding to the Text, Sharing Response and Role of Teacher 6.1. Factual, Fictional and Revisiting Text 233-238 6.2. Responding to the context, Sharing reponses and role of Teacher 238-246 6.2.1. Resources for Shared reading 240-241 6.2.2. Shared reading lesson 241-245 6.2.3. Role of Teacher and Benefits of sharing 246

UNIT—I TEXT READING AND REFLECTIONS ² Analytical and Critical Thinking : Meaning and Im-

portance for Reading and Writing.

² Role of Critical Reading and Critical Thinking in

Enhancing Writing Skills.

² Ways of Developing Reading Skills: Importance

of Developing Reading Skills; Reading Aloud and Silent Reading; Extensive Reading; Study Skills including using Thesauras, Dictionary, Encyclopedia. ² Ways of Developing Writing Skills : Formal and Informal Writing (such as Poetry, Short Story, Letter, Diary, Notices, Articles, Reports, Dialogue, Speech and Advertisement.

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Critical Thinking : Meaning and Importance of Reading and Writing and Role of Critical Reading, Critical Thinking in Enhancing Writing Skills

1.1. Concept of Critical Thinking Critical thinking is a process of analysing, synthesizing and evaluating information independently to guide a person’s actions and beliefs. It encourages and facilitates higher order learning. Critical thinking is a multi-step process. It can be defined as an active, intellectual process where the individual will observe, analyze and reflect on new knowledge and integrate it into their current understanding. Critical thinking can be applied in a variety of learning platforms such as reading, written work and discussions. Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the past 2500 years.  The term “critical thinking” has its roots in the mid-late 20th century.  We offer here overlapping definitions, together which form a substantive, transdisciplinary conception of critical thinking. Critical Thinking as Defined by the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, 1987 A statement by Michael Scriven & Richard Paul, presented at the 8th Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Education Reform, Summer 1987. Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue; 3

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assumptions; concepts; empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions; implications and consequences; objections from alternative viewpoints; and frame of reference. Critical thinking — in being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes — is incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking. Critical thinking can be seen as having two components: (1) a set of information and belief generating and processing skills, and (2) the habit, based on intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide behaviour. It is thus to be contrasted with: (1) the mere acquisition and retention of information alone, because it involves a particular way in which information is sought and treated; (2) the mere possession of a set of skills, because it involves the continual use of them; and (3) the mere use of those skills (“as an exercise”) without acceptance of their results. Critical thinking varies according to the motivation underlying it. When grounded in selfish motives, it is often manifested in the skillful manipulation of ideas in service of one’s own, or one’s groups’, vested interest. As such it is typically intellectually flawed, however pragmatically successful it might be. When grounded in fairmindedness and intellectual integrity, it is typically of a higher order intellectually, though subject to the charge of “idealism” by those habituated to its selfish use.

1.1.1. Importance and Benefits of Critical Thinking Skills Critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual; everyone is subject to episodes of undisciplined or irrational thought. Its quality is therefore typically a matter of degree and dependent on, among other things, the quality and depth of experience in a given domain of thinking or with respect to a particular class of questions. No one is a critical thinker through-and-through, but only to such-

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and-such a degree, with such-and-such insights and blind spots, subject to such-and-such tendencies towards self-delusion. For this reason, the development of critical thinking skills and dispositions is a life-long endeavor. Critical thinking is not a negative process, even though many link critical thinking with criticism. Instead it is more useful to link critical thinking with criteria or standards against which the information is compared .Criteria are noted in the section: Examples of critical thinking rubrics. Some Important Points are as under : 1. Critical Thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self- monitored and self-corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism. 2. Critical Thinking is the ability to analyze the way you think and present evidence for your ideas, rather than simply accepting your personal reasoning as sufficient proof. You can gain numerous benefits from mastering critical thinking skills, such as better control of your own learning and empathy for other points of view. From solving problems in class assignments to facing real world situations,Critical Thinking is a valuable skill for students to master. 3. Critical Thinking skills teach a variety of skills that can be applied to any situation in life that calls for reflection, analysis and planning.

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4. Critical Thinking is a domain-general thinking skill—The ability to think clearly and rationally is important whatever we choose to do. If you work in education, research, finance, management or the legal profession, then critical thinking is obviously important. But critical thinking skills are not restricted to a particular subject area. Being able to think well and solve problems systematically is an asset for any career. 5. Critical Thinking is crucial for self-reflection—In order to live a meaningful life and to structure our lives accordingly, we need to justify and reflect on our values and decisions. Critical thinking provides the tools for this process of self-evaluation. 6. Critical Thinking is very important in the new knowledge economy. The global knowledge economy is driven by information and technology. One has to be able to deal with changes quickly and effectively. The new economy places increasing demands on flexible intellectual skills, and the ability to analyse information and integrate diverse sources of knowledge in solving problems. Good critical thinking promotes such thinking skills, and is very important in the fast-changing workplace. 7. Critical Thinking enhances language and presentation skills—Thinking clearly and systematically can improve the way we express our ideas. In learning how to analyse the logical structure of texts, critical thinking also improves comprehension abilities. 8. Critical Thinking promotes creativity—To come up with a creative solution to a problem involves not just having new ideas. It must also be the case that the new ideas being generated are useful and relevant to the task at hand. Critical thinking plays a crucial role in evaluating new ideas, selecting the best ones and modifying them if necessary 9. Critical Thinking—is something that is valued both in the university setting and in the professional situations you will find yourselves in after you graduate, and is part of lifelong learning. Critical

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Thinking is important in life. It helps you to think creatively – ‘outside the box’. It keeps you from becoming narrow. Critical Thinking is expected of you in higher education. It can lead to developing your judgement, evaluation and problem solving abilities. 10. Learning Critical Thinking—skills can also enhance your academic performance. According to Linda Elder and Richard Paul, authors of”Critical Thinking Development: A Stage Theory,” students who know how to analyze and critique ideas are able to make connections across disciplines, see knowledge as useful and applicable to daily life and understand content on a deeper, more lasting level. 11. Good Critical Thinking is the foundation of science and a liberal democratic society—Science requires the critical use of reason in experimentation and theory confirmation. The proper functioning of a liberal democracy requires citizens who can think critically about social issues to inform their judgments about proper governance and to overcome biases and prejudice. 12. All Entrance exams examine a students’ ability to think critically. As a matter of fact, the analytical and verbal reasoning skills sections of the GRE exams are straight out exams founded on testing Critical Thinking skills. So is the Written Analysis and Communication test in the second phase of IIMA entrance exams. The skills developed in Critical Thinking directly help students do better even at the Mathematical reasoning tests. 13. Rather than relying on teachers and classroom time for instruction and guidance, students with critical thinking skills become more independent, self-directed learners. Researcher Jane Qinjuan Zhang writes that critical thinking enables students to assess their learning styles, strengths and weaknesses and allows them to take ownership of their education. 14. A good critical thinker knows how to separate facts from opinions, how to examine an issue from all sides, how to make rational inferences and how to withhold personal judgment or biases.

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15. Today one of the most important criteria for success in College is the ability to think independently while being logical at the same time. Often students are asked to present papers either on their subject matter or in liberal arts. Knowledge of Critical Thinking Skills enables students to not only outline their papers coherently with a logical structure, it also helps them reason and present their thoughts in an organized and persuasive manner. 16. It’s easy to let your emotions take over when making an important decision or arguing for your opinion, especially if you are personally invested in it. However, ”Why Critical Thinking?”, a report from York University, asserts that critical thinking can help you effectively use emotional appeal, letting your feelings influence, but not control your reasoning. 17. Critical thinkers consider all options before they act. If time is an important factor, they consider the fastest method of achieving a goal. They may even discover a shortcut. Critical thinkers embody the phrase ”work smarter, not harder.” They are masters of efficiency. 18. Rational critical thinkers are generally the voices of reason in times of mass hysteria or panic. As Franklin D. Roosevelt said, ”We have nothing to fear but fear itself.” The critical thinker usually has the comprehensive skills to consider all possible options and solve a problem. 19. A critical thinker has the self-awareness to know the difference between a rational thought based on careful consideration and an emotional response based on personal bias. Emotion is the enemy of reason. By understanding your own perspective, you can also consider the perspective of others and come to a conclusion based on fact, not feelings. 20. Ultimately, Critical Thinking Skills help you to better understand the experiences and views of others, enhancing your ability to work with different people.

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21. The critical thinker remains calm and knows when he is right. Critical thinkers are less likely to fall for scams or tricks because they approach everything with a healthy amount of skepticism. Those who lack critical thinking skills often assume that everything they hear is true, regardless of the source. 22. Increasingly more and more employers are looking not for employees with highly specialized academic skills, but those with good thinking and communication skills. Employees who learn quickly and can solve problems, think creatively, gather and analyze information meaningfully. 23. Many of the highest paying jobs require critical thinking skills, such as generating effective ideas and making important decisions. Job interviewers often ask applicants questions that test their ability to think critically. Critical thinking skills may also be a deciding factor when an employee seeks a promotion.

1.1.2. Teaching of Critical Thinking Critical thinking can be taught. Teaching it involves breaking down the process or thinking of it as a number of steps. Each step needs to be explained and practiced explicitly and students given opportunity for undertaking this practice as part of formative assessment. Although the steps can be taught, the actual process, however, of thinking cannot. The academic needs to take the role of facilitator (instead of instructor) in supporting students to develop an explicit understanding of the critical thinking process. They then need to allow students time to practice and to receive feedback. It is also necessary to remember that critical thinking can initially be a confronting process therefore teaching critical thinking should involve two parts : I. provide students with a critical thinking protocol or process. II. provide opportunities for students to apply this process.

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Setting up any initial student task that elicits critical thinking should: ² be small so as not to overwhelm students. ² focus on a single step in the critical thinking process; further steps can then be built into the process. ² be non-threatening, i.e. should not include confronting or controversial material where students may feel uncomfortable about expressing a point of view. ² include teamwork to assist with hearing, discussing and analysing other views. ² be formative and not be linked to summative assessment. There is one other important component of critical thinking which is time. Critical thinking is a process and as such requires considerable time to undertake well. It also requires time for students to develop the skills necessary for critical thinking and this should be factored into each course. Tools used in Teaching Critical Thinking Critical thinking is fundamental to scholarly work. Universities have always undertaken to teach these skills in some form or to some degree through the history of academia. Nowadays, some universities provide introductory units to support students in developing critical thinking skills. The outline of one such course at University of Sydney provides a number of tools for teaching critical thinking. Deakin Study Support Unit also provides resources on critical thinking to which academics can refer students. Applying the critical thinking process to tasks that provide students with a clear context (for example, future workplace) can assist their analysis. This would include: ² written essays analysing a problem within the workplace. ² problem based learning. ² case studies. ² simulations. ² work integrated learning through placement or practicum.

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An example of critical thinking in the health discipline would be asking students to critically analyse the actions of a nurse when treating a gravely ill patient. The students would already be familiar with the context of the hospital in relation to policies and ethical considerations.

1.1.3. Critical Thinking and Academic Reading Once students have started to develop critical thinking skills they will then need to apply these to readings and draw on these to complete their assignments in their course. Critical thinking in academic reading is useful for students as it takes the process of reading from passive to active. Deakin Study Support Unit provides resources for applying critical thinking to reading. (a) Critical thinking in reading To be able to read critically, you need to: 1. Consider writer’s background, assumptions and purposes 2. Distinguish facts from opinions 3. Know your own belief and biases 4. Identify evidence and conclusions 5. Identify details being emphasised and evidence being included excluded 6. Consider various perspectives and interpretations (b) Questions to guide critical thinking when reading ²What are the main points of this text? ² What sorts of examples are used? Are they useful? Can you think of others? ²Can you put them in your own words? ² What factors (ideas, people, things) have been included? Can you think of anything that has been missed out? ² Is a particular bias or framework apparent? Can you tell what ‘school of thought’ the author belongs to? ²Are the main ideas in the text supported by reliable evidence (well researched, non-emotive, logical)?

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² Do you agree or disagree with the author? Why? ² What connections do you see between this and other texts? ² Can you work out the steps of the argument being presented?

Do all the steps follow logically? ² Could a different conclusion be drawn from the argument being presented? ² Where does it differ from other texts on the same subject? ²What are the wider implications – for you, for the discipline? It is also important to provide students with a variety of texts to read and encourage selfdirected learning regarding this point. Additionally, the reading of peers’ work is also as it provides an opportunity for students to recognise critical thinking in others and model this in their own work.

1.1.4. Critical Thinking and Academic Writing Once students are capable of critically analysing what they read, they need to start formulating their own arguments as part of assignment writing. Deakin Study Support Unit provides resources for applying critical thinking to academic writing and assignment writing. As teachers, these might help frame the questioning or structuring of prompts designed to elicits critical thinking skill development. A. Critical thinking in writing Purposes of critique assignments: ² To develop analytical reading skills. ² To learn to express evaluative comments which give fair and reasonable judgement. ² To assess students’ understanding of readings. B. Questions to guide critical thinking when undertaking academic writing ² What is the lecturer/task looking for?

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² If you want to say something which is new or unusual or

which your lecturer may disagree with, make sure you have EXTRA evidence and support. ²Work out what sort of critical thinking will be involved – comparing? Problem solving? Looking for cause and effect? Evaluating? ² Make sure everything you say is backed up by evidence and references. ² Think about why this essay topic is worth writing about – what makes it particularly significant. ² Link what you are saying into the overall field of the discipline. ² Look at both sides of an argument. C. Common types of critical analytical writing in assignments: ² film review ² annotated reference ² book review ² can be in various structures but a simple one is (summary + evaluation) ² annotated bibliography Structure: General strategies for critical writing : ² Read critically ² Be fair and reasonable. Take into account accepted standards of judgement used in your discipline. ² Consider viewpoints from a range of perspectives. (e.g. male and female, different socioeconomic and ethnic groups). ² Use evidence taken from sources which are considered authoritative in the field.

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1.1.5. Difference between Descriptive, Analytical, Persuasive and Critical Writing The simplest type of academic writing is descriptive and its purpose is to provide facts or information. An example would be a summary of an article or a report of the results of an experiment. The kinds of assignment instructions for a purely descriptive assignment could be, e.g. identify, report, list, name, record, summarise, collect, define, etc. However, it is rare for a university-level text to be purely descriptive. Most academic writing is also analytical. Analytical writing includes descriptive writing (i.e. facts or information), plus the added feature of re-organisation. That is, in analytical writing you not only give information, but you also re-organise it into categories, groups, parts, types or relationships. Sometimes, these are categories or relationships which are already part of the discipline (e.g. In the discipline of Law, there are 2 types of law: common law and statute law). Sometimes, these are categories or relationships which you create specifically for your text (e.g. If you are comparing two theories, you might break your comparison into 3 parts, based on 3 aspects of the theories, such as: how each theory deals with social context, how each theory deals with language learning, and how each theory can be used in practice). The kinds of instructions for an analytical assignment could be, e.g. analyse, compare, contrast, relate, examine, classify, etc. In most academic writing, you are required to go at least one step further than analytical writing, to persuasive writing. Persuasive writing has all the features of analytical writing (i.e. information, plus re-organisation of the information) plus the added feature of your own point of view. Your point of view may be, for example, an interpretation of the findings, an argument or some recommendations. Most essays are persuasive and there is a persuasive element in at least the discussion

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and conclusion of a research article. In persuasive writing, each claim that you make needs to be supported by some evidence – e.g. by a reference to an authoritative published source, by empirical findings or by original reasoning – whatever kind of evidence is appropriate for your discipline and the specific text you are writing. The kinds of instructions for a persuasive assignment could be, e.g. argue, evaluate, discuss, take a position; as well as evaluative language such as, e.g. more convincing, problem, opportunity, succeed, should. Critical writing is common for research, postgraduate and advanced undergraduate writing. Critical writing has all the features of persuasive writing (i.e. facts + re-organised + your point of view), plus the added feature of at least one other point of view. That is, while persuasive writing requires you to have your own point of view on an issue or topic, critical writing requires you to consider at least two points of view, including your own. For example, you may explain a researcher’s interpretation or argument and then evaluate the merits of her argument, or give your own alternative interpretation. Examples of critical writing assignments include a critique of a journal article or a literature review which finds the strengths and weaknesses of existing research. The kinds of instructions which can show that you are required to write critically could be, e.g. critique, debate, disagree, evaluate, etc. Usually these are accompanied by either the name of someone whose work you should critique (e.g. Chomsky (1975)) or else more general words for people’s opinions in the discipline, e.g. ‘adherents of M-Theory’, ‘some may assume that, ‘qualitative versus quantitative approaches’, ‘those in working in the constructivist tradition’, etc. Many academic texts that you write will have some parts which are more analytical or descriptive, and other parts which are persuasive or critical. For example, an empirical thesis needs critical writing in the literature review, to show where there is a gap or opportunity in the existing research. However, the methods section will have many

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paragraphs which are mostly descriptive, in order to summarise the methods used to collect and analyse information. In the results section of an empirical thesis or a research report, there will be mostly descriptive and analytical writing, while the discussion section is more analytical, as you relate your findings back to your research questions, and generally also more persuasive, as you propose your interpretations of the findings. Conclusion Critical thinking is integral to scholarly activity. It is, like many skills, developed through time and experiences. Students need to be challenged in many ways in order to facilitate the development of this learning outcome. Employers seek graduates who have sharp critical thinking skills as these need to be applied to various vocational based activities. Through careful and explicit planning of tasks and activities, academics provide a fundamental basis for the development of critical thinking skills in students that they then take on to develop further as part of their professional and lifelong learning pathways.

1.2. Concept of Reading and Writing Reading is a process of looking at a written or printed symbol and translating it into an appropriate sound. This spoken symbol is further associated with an object for which it stands. Thus reading consists of three elements....the symbol (Written or printed), the sound and the sense. For example, the child reads the word ‘cat’ in his book. First of all, he looks at the symbols, translates them into a specific sounds which stand for some animal called ‘cat’ and at the same time he visualises the concrete object or idea for which the said symbol stands. Writing is of immense importance. Developing the skill of writing as an important factor in teaching of a foreign language is listening, speaking, reading and writing. Writing skill reinforces oral and reading work. The language items already learnt become firmly fixed in the

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minds of students. Writing provides a change of activity helping in reducing motory and enables the students to do some homework. Writing helps the organization of thought by enabling a person to have before him at the same time the different points which he is trying to present. Without the help of writing, it is very difficult to keep in the mind the various aspects of a subject.

1.2.1. Concept of Reading From time to time people have wondered why reading is important. There seems so many other things to do with one’s time. Reading is important for a variety of reasons. We will look at some of those fundamental reasons below, but it is important to realize that struggling with vital reading skills in not a sign a low intelligence. For example, John Corcoran, who wrote The Teacher Who Couldn’t Read, is a very intelligent man. He graduated from High School and College, became a popular High School teacher and later a successful business man all without being able to read. Many highly intelligent people have struggled with reading although, when properly taught, most people can learn to read easily and quickly. I. Why Is Reading Important? 1. The fact of the power of written ideas communicated through reading is a foundational reason why some governments oppose free and honest communication. Illiterate people are easier to control and manipulate. They cannot do their own research and thinking. They must rely on what they are told and how their emotions are swayed. There is a good possibility that this is one of the main reasons phonics was removed from the schools about 100 years ago. 2. Reading is fundamental to function in today’s society. There are many adults who cannot read well enough to understand the instructions on a medicine bottle. That is a scary thought - especially for their children. Filling out applications becomes impossible without help. Reading road or warning signs is difficult. Even following a map

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becomes a chore. Day-to-day activities that many people take for granted become a source of frustration, anger and fear. 3. Reading is important because it develops the mind. The mind is a muscle. It needs exercise. Understanding the written word is one way the mind grows in its ability. Teaching young children to read helps them develop their language skills. It also helps them learn to listen. Everybody wants to talk, but few can really listen. Lack of listening skills can result in major misunderstandings which can lead to job loss, marriage breakup, and other disasters - small and great. Reading helps children [and adults] focus on what someone else is communicating. 4. Reading develops the imagination. TV and computer games have their place, but they are more like amusement. Amusement comes from two words “a” [non] and “muse” [think]. Amusement is non-thinking activities. With reading, a person can go anywhere in the world...or even out of it! They can be a king, or an adventurer, or a princess, or... The possibilities are endless. Non-readers never experience these joys to the same extent. 5. Reading is fundamental in developing a good self image. Nonreaders or poor readers often have low opinions of themselves and their abilities. Many times they feel as if the world is against them. They feel isolated [everybody else can read - which isn’t true] and behavior problems can surface. They can perform poorly in other subjects because they cannot read and understand the material and so tend to “give up.” 6. There is an old saying, “The pen is mightier than the sword.” Ideas written down have changed the destiny of men and nations for better or worse. The flow of ideas cannot be stopped. We need to read and research to build on the good ideas and expose the bad ideas before they bring destruction. Only by reading can we be armed in this never-ending, life-and-death struggle.

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7. In line with the above, reading develops the creative side of people. When reading to children, stop every once in awhile and ask them what they think is going to happen next. Get them thinking about the story. When it is finished, ask if they could think of a better ending or anything that would have improved it. If they really liked the story, encourage them to illustrate it with their own drawings or to make up a different story with the same characters. Get the creative juices flowing. 8. Finally, why is reading important? Reading is important because words spoken and written - are the building blocks of life. You are, right now, the result of words that you have heard or read AND believed about yourself. What you become in the future will depend on the words you believe about yourself now. People, families, relationships and even nations are built from words. Think about it. “Reading skill is, undoubtedly, of unique importance in the learning of a language. A. W. Frisby says ; “Reading for those who have been guided to appreciate it, is one of the most important activities of life to bring to us not only a pleasant way of spending the time, but a way of entering into the life of the world and helping us to contemplate spiritual matters. Many of those who do not approach reading in this life have probably not received in their youth the right encouragement.’’ Thus we find that the ability to read well is very much expected from every person. R.S. Trivedi and D.A. Ghanchi write in their book ‘Teaching English’ .... “In fact, the education of a child is imperfect, unless he is equipped with ability to read, to decipher, to interpret and to understand properly the contents of a reading material. The intellectual advancement of a child is strictly limited if he is unable to read.” Reading involves recognition of sounds and written symbols. Recognition of sound is needed for listening or speaking of the language. Recognition of written symbols is important for reading purposes. Let us first of all reflect over the exact meaning of reading.

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Reading involves an active effort on the part of the reader. It is helpful to achieve the important aspects of learning a foreign language. It enables a learner to pronounce the words correctly by recognising and understanding their meanings. Reading facilitates the process of reading fluently and prepares the child for reading with purpose. Reading infact, consists of three elements: (i) the symbols (written or printed), the sound and the sense. Infact, it is the ability which enables the pupils to extract the thoughts, facts and information from the printed page that he is reading. Principal Trivedi and Prof. Ghanchi writes “In fact, the education of a child is imperfect, unless he is equipped with the ability to read, to decipher, to interpret and to understand properly the contents of a reading material. The intellectual advancement of a child is strictly limited, if he is unable to read.” Reading is interpreting a message. This means interpreting correctly the value of utterance. A good and competent reader grasps not merely the signification of what he reads but also its value. This involves understanding the writer’s pre-suppositions sufficiently, to recognize what he means by a particular statement, not just what he says, but why he says it. II. Definitions 1. According to Mr. Raghunath, “The process of accepting the meaning by reading the written words – symbols of the earlier listened sounds – is called reading.” In this way, reading is a purposeful, meaningful and main brainstorming activity. While studying, as the view of the reader revolves over the printed words, in that manner he accepts the meaning and sense inherent in those words. 2. Louis linguist has written in his book “Language in School that reading is a means of through the medium of which the child gets introduced with the complete store of knowledge accumulated by the human race.’’

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3. Bancon, “Reading makes a full man.” 4. According to Dr. Ram Shukal Pandey, “Reading is that activity in which sound and meaning move side by side.” 5. Prof. B.N. Sharma, “The resources that are utilized to establish the written thoughts of a poet or author are called reading.” 6. Dr. Abha Rani Bisht, “Reading is a means of self-education. It gives full control to the learner over the language.” In the words of W.S. Gray, “Reading is a form of experience. Reading brings us in contact with minds of great authors with the written account of their experiences, their recorded lives and advancement made by them in various fields.” According to C.C. Fries, “Our main purpose in developing the ability to read among our children is that we wish to put them in possession of the power of gaining pleasure and profit from the printed pages.” III. Characteristics of Reading In the very early stage of reading instruction, teachers are generally concerned, with developing the mechanical reading skills. But as soon as they come to know that their students have these basic skills, they should move on as quickly as possible to develop in students the cognitive skills associated with different types of reading activity. If this kind of work is begun at the elementary stage, the students are more likely to become efficient readers early in their life. Following are the characteristics of efficient reading: 1. Reading is based on comprehension—That is, understanding the meaning is integral to reading rather than the result of it. The more we comprehend, the more we can, and tend to read. 2. Reading is Purposeful—When you read, it has a reason. Even if you read a novel during travelling your purpose is to pass time. 3. Reading is Selective—The way you read differs according to the purpose. You quickly scan a page in the telephone directory to

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locate a name/number but you have to pay careful attention to every word in a legal document. But we skim, attempting to extract the gist of a text or we read intensively with the aim of decoding the whole of the writer’s message. 4. Reading is silent—Reading aloud is a specialised skill used, for example, by actors and newspapers but seldom by the general reader. 5. Reading speed varies—Content and purpose has its effect on speed. You read a story book faster than the text book. 6. Reading is text-based—It is always the context which provides meaning to reading, it is not the mere decoding of individual sentences isolated from context. 7. Reading involves complex cognitive skills—Readers do not merely decode the message. They make predictions and inferences. They anticipate based on what they read.

1.2.1.1. Mechanics of Reading How do we read ? How does the eye react during the reading activity ? It is generally assumed that the eye moves in a smooth movement when it reads. The actual mechanics of reading shows otherwise. When we read, our eyes keep on moving along the printed or written words. If we watch closely the eyes of a reader, we will notice that his eyes do not move slowly and steadily across the page in one even movement, but in a series of short little jerks. As soon as the concentration on the print is enough to see it clearly, the eye moves off, leaving it to the head to make slow and even motion, making the reader think that his eye is also moving slowly and smoothly. The eye does not read while it moves. It recognises ordinary sized print only when it stands still. It does not take much of a pause to make a recognition, about a tenth of a second is sufficient.

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The small pauses of the eyes between jumps are called ‘FIXATIONS’. The length of the print covered between two fixations or the number of words read in one complete movement of the eye is called ‘eye-span’. A good reader has a longer eye-span. This means he can take in longer stretches of the reading matter at a time and has a good speed. A poor reader, on the other hand, has shorter eye span. He fixes his eyes on small bits usually on individual letters and is therefore an inefficient reader. He may sometimes have to regress or move his eyes backward. While reading some students put their fingers under each word. This adversely affects their reading speed. A reader with a long eye span not only gains speed but is also good at comprehension since he has a better gestalt view of the matter. Thus a good reader has longer eye-spans and can take in longer stretches of the reading matter at once, while a poor reader has shorter spans, and consequently concentrates on small bits or individual letters. The longer the eye span, the more fluent is the reader, the shorter, the poorer. Mature reading habits are marked by widening of the eye span, reduction in backward movements of the eye and shortening of the duration of fixation pauses. Poor readers become conscious of individual letters ‘B-a-d bad’ and lose sight of the whole word. They murmur as they read, their eye goes back often and they use their finger or pencil to point to individual words in point. The physiology of reading has exploded the old theory that one reads by spelling out words, and by seeing each letter in the word separately. One sees not one letter at a time, but entire words and even phrases. Good reader sees words and phrases instead of letters for fluent reading, one needs a long eye-span so as to see entire words and phrases at a glance. Close attention to letters not only discourages this, but builds up wrong habit which makes the development of fluent reading habit difficult. Most good readers pay little attention to spelling and small typing errors. The eye does not analyse closely, but sees

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words as a whole. Only when the error is gross, and destroys the word picture the mistake is noticed. Good readers do not necessarily make good proof readers for which close attention to detail and meaning is not necessary. However, efficient reading includes not only the ability to see longer bits of language, but also the ability to comprehend the matter read. Since a reader with a longer eye-span can have a better Gestalt view of the matter, comprehension becomes easier for him. This implies the apparent paradox that a fast reader understands better than a slow reader. The reason is that for proper comprehension, an optimum speed is necessary. This aspect of reading can be compared to riding a bicycle, where balance is possible only after attaining a certain speed.

1.2.1.2. Importance of Reading Now we will analyse how these aspects can be implied in the process of learning. (i) To learn Pronunciation and Articulation—Now comes the stage of learning pronunciation and proper articulation of these letters and words. And here the second definition is implied. The pupils learn pronunciation of the language items with proper stress, intonation and rhythm once again with the help of the teacher. This pertains to reading aloud. In this stage, the beginners realise how written text is associated with spoken words. But this stage lasts only upto that moment when the pupils are able to read at their own. (ii) To learn Silent Reading—On analysing the third definition, we come to know about the concept of ‘reading for comprehension’ or ‘silent reading’. And this is the only aim of learning of a language. When we read newspapers, books, articles, road signs etc. we are least bothered about articulation, pronunciation, stress, intonation or rhythm.

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(iii) To decode and decipher Letters and Words—When the pupils are novice in the learning of language they try to be familiar with the shape of letters and words. For this they have to decode, decipher and identify the letters and words. And at this stage all the functions are done with the assistance and guidance of the teacher. (iv) To learn loud reading—Reading aloud is done only when someone is there to listen to it as in case of news reading. Another mentionable thing is that concentration is lesser in loud reading as compared to silent one, because here the reader’s attention is diverted to proper pronunciation, stress and rhythm as well as recognition of the printed material. Consequently reading speed is retarded and due to diversion the understanding is also marred. (v) To develop comprehensive ability—Whether we can understand or not, we are simply to draw out necessary information from the available text that is what is called comprehension. In case of learning of a foreign language, this is the most important phase. Another quality of silent reading as compared to loud reading is faster reading speed. Because of less distraction as is in case of reading aloud, silent reading involves full concentration. In case of reading aloud we have to use more number of senses. We have to recognise the word, speak it and evaluate it by listening to it. So, here two skills-reading and listening are involved leading to retardation in reading speed. So, we can conclude, that in teaching of a foreign language, reading involves understanding and comprehending meaning or message conveyed through the written text. As was mentioned at the start of the chapter that the process of learning of a language is very close to communication process, here we analyse this correlation.

1.2.1.3. Process of Learning Reading Reading is an active process, in which the reader is involved in getting at the message, which is called decoding (so the reader is a decoder) that the writer (the encoder) has been able to put (on encode) through the written text.

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Now, the message conveyed by the text is understood and interpreted by the decoder only after decoding it and, thus, communication is achieved. We can understand this process with the help of the following diagram.

Fig.: The process involved in Learning of a Language Above diagram clarifies that reading involves active participation of the reader/decoder in understanding the message the writer/encoder has conveyed through the written text. This equally applies to the spoken text in which the speaker or encoder encodes the message for the listener or decoder to hear it. The decoder decodes the message or the intended meaning of the speaker as he listens to the speech. So, this process makes it crystal clear that the reader or listener, who is decoding the message, is not passive at all. Only due to this misconception that the listener has passive role, the whole teaching learning process suffers. The diagram clarifies that at the end of decoding, the decoder has to interpret the message and give feedback. It is only on the basis of this feedback that this process can be carried on. Similarly, in case of language learning, the teacher or the book are encoders while the students or the readers are decoders. On the basis of feedback given by the students or interpretation or understanding by the reader, the process goes on. This signifies the role of loud as well as the silent reading in learning of a language. So, reading is important to improve comprehension of the language. A learner can produce the language only when he understands the language. Reading improves understanding or comprehension which prepares a ground to learn how to write a language, which is the next basic skill.

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1.2.1.4. Methods of Teaching Reading to beginners (a) The Alphabetic Method The alphabetic method of teaching reading was almost universal from the early days of Greece and Rome until the end of the middle ages. It was assumed that familiarity with the forms and names of letters, helped the pupil to recognise and pronounce the word. In learning such words like ‘bat’ the pupil repeated the familiar letter ba-t until he sensed the pronunciation of the word. Thereafter letters are combined into syllables or words. The syllables and words are then combined into phrases and short sentences. Mastery is attained through repetition. After considerable practice of this process actual reading begins. Even emphasis is laid on the recognition of new words, rather than grasping the meaning. Advantages (i) It is a time saving method. (ii) Here the unit of teaching is an alphabet which is the smallest and that is liked by every one. (iii) This method helps the learners in picking up spellings of words easily. (iv) It is a very simple method. As per Indian situations, majority of teachers like to teach by this method and a large number of them find this method very convenient for them. (v) It is considered to be a very systematic method because the students learn alphabets first, then words by combining the different letters and thereafter the sentences. Disadvantages The following are the disadvantages of this method : (i) It is a very unpsychological method because every body while reading sentences reads words and not letters. (ii) It is a very dull and boring method because the different alphabets in isolation have no meanings.

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(iii) The children find it very difficult and confusing method because there are 26 alphabets and these alphabets represent 44 sounds. (b) Phonic Method The phonic method consists of teaching English through the phonetic script. The child is first taught the sound that the letters of the alphabet represents. First, he is given training in producing these sounds, then, he is told how to combine the sounds of the various letters. For example, a small word like ‘at’, is formed by short sound of ‘a’ and ‘t’ if we combine these sounds of various letters. Then, if we add sound of ‘r’ to ‘at’ it, becomes ‘rat’. Advantages (i) Here the students are encouraged to read words and not the letters or the alphabets. (ii) With the learning of sounds first, the natural process of learning the language i.e. speaking, reading etc. starts. Surely the learners find themselves on the concrete way of learning the language. (iii) In this method, the learners are acquainted with the sounds first. They need sounds for speaking. Disadvantages (i) This method works well in the hands of really competent teachers but there is dearth of such teachers. (ii) This method is OK in teaching simple words but all the words of the language are not simple. It fails in the case of words where spellings of the words are irregular. (iii) Here the students form the habit of reading words. Later on when they are to read sentences, they find it very difficult to read the sentence rapidly. (iv) This method is not suitable for teaching English because all the alphabets don’t correspond with the sounds. (c) The look and Say Method The look and say method make the children learn words wholes and does not analyse them into their component parts, spelling or sound.

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According to this, simple words are written on the black-board. These words are selected according to the familiar objects to the children. The objects representing these words are shown to the children as they look at each word. Thus the child is exposed to two images viz-a-viz the actual object and written form of the word for which it stands. Instead writing the word on the blackboard, the teacher may show flash card on which the word is written. The same flash card may also contain the picture of the word. In order to find out whether the students have learnt a particular word or not, the teacher writes the word on the blackboard without of course, showing the object and asks them what it stands for. Thus, English is taught by the aid of the ear and the eye and sometimes by touch and action. In the teaching of language, we begin with nouns such as the common objects available in the classroom. Suppose we select the word ‘book’. This book is shown to the class and complete word ‘book’ already written on the blackboard is shown to the pupils (the words to be taught in the earlier lessons have all been learnt in oral practise and the pupil knows their meanings). The word “book” is then practised in oral drill collectively and individually a number of times. The pupil now associates the word ‘book’ with the object that he sees before him. Similarly a large number of other words are not taught. Complete words standing for certain objects are taught similarly when verbs are taught, actions are performed with class and complete words are associated with those actions. Then, we proceed to complete sentences. This method involves three main steps : · To present objects · To perform actions · To make sentences and then practise them. Advantages 1. The greatest advantage of this method is that it makes the word the unit of learning rather than the letter. In the language words come before letters and they stand for something whereas the individual

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letters of the alphabet do not have any meaning in themselves. 2. Secondly, in this method we proceed from the concrete to the abstract the child sees the actual object, then the word signifying it and then the symbols that represent the name. Moreover, the child proceeds from the known to unknown as he first learns the words and then the letters constituting them. 3. Thirdly, this method is interesting and attractive. The child is learning words which stands for ideas instead of meaningless forms or sounds as a, b and c etc. P.C. Wren has rightly said it, “the one and only letter in the word separately. One sees not one letter at a time but entire words and even phrases. The good reader sees words and phrases as a unit. Since the letter is not the unit of vision, the teaching of reading in its first lessons should deal with words instead of letters. For fluent reading one needs a longer eye span; that is, one must see entire words and phrases at once. Close attention to letters not only discourages this but builds up wrong habits which make the development of proper eye habits difficult.” Drawbacks This method has some following drawbacks : 1. The third objection to this method is that the spellings are likely to suffer. But this is a wrong notion as spellings are learnt by reading and the more the child reads, the better will he remember the spellings. 2. As all words cannot be represented by pictures, they cannot be taught through this method. 3. Another drawback of this method is that it does not give skill in deciphering new words. (d) The Syllabic Method In the syllabic method, the key units used in teaching reading are syllabic units. As syllables are introduced and learned, they are combined to form words and sentences. The use of syllables is preferred to that of letters because many consonants can be pronounced accurately only in combination of vowels. This method puts too heavy load on the pupils memory in early stages. It is not suitable for languages with a complex syllable structure.

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(e) The Word Method In this method, words are usually presented in a meaningful setting and learned largely by the ‘see and say’ method during first few sessions. This procedure is based on the assumption that each word has a characteristic form by which it can be remembered. As an aid in establishing meaningful associations, pictures often accompany the words in primers. At the same time, attention is directed to detail of words such as syllables and letters and their sounds. The method is based on the ground that individual words are basic units of thoughts, attention in reading is focused on the meaning of what is read and the learning of words as whole is followed. This method, however fails to develop the necessary accuracy and independence in word recognition and therefore does not help progress in reading. Teachers often delay word analysis or even omit altogether. (f) The Phrase Method The phrase method is based on the assumption that phrases are more interesting than words and they place emphasis on meaning. It is a compromise between word and sentence method. It is believed that since good readers recognise groups of words at each fixation of eyes, the phrase method should foster rapid growth in efficient reading. In this method, a phrase is often written on the black-board as it comes up in class or it is selected and written on the blackboard as a new unit to be learned. It is looked at carefully by the pupils, repeated several times and compared with previously learned phrases. Familiar words within the phrases are then noted and flew ones learned. The phrase method has all the advantages and limitations of the word method. It place emphasis on meaning and is an uneconomical method of word mastery. (g) The Sentence Method The method urges that the sentence, and not the word or letter, is the true unit of speech, expressing whole thoughts which are the units in thinking. If the sentence is the natural unit in language, it is the natural unit in reading as in speaking. Words have meaning in context and context is provided by the sentence. As the word is not the mere

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sum of letter-sounds, neither is the sentence merely a sequence of words sounds and word names. It has a distinctive total sound and appearance and meaning indicated plainly in the way it is spoken when its meaning is felt. It is read and spoken naturally only when the total meaning is prominent in the consciousness of the reader or speaker. As pupils engage themselves in conversation, they make many interesting statements about it. One of the statements is then written on the blackboard by the teacher and read with expression. The pupils are then directed to find important groups of words within the sentence and specific words within each group. After the first lesson or two they are helped by the recurrence of familiar words. Through various types of exercises the new words are learned so well that they can be recognized at sight. Sooner or later, attention is directed to the elements of the new words. Advantages 1. If the sentence method is well applied, it lays the foundation of all the skills required for good reading, a clear grasp or meaning, accuracy and independence in word recognition. 2. It helps the pupils to form proper habits of reading. 3. It is in keeping with the gestalt concept of learning. It stresses the meaning of what is read and thus. Cultivates an intelligent reading attitude and keen interest in reading according to Schonell, “One of the greatest value of the sentence method lies in the help it offers to the pupil from the context and from the continuity of meaning that can be embodied in the material.” According to Anderson and Dearborn, it helps to prevent word by word reading. 4. In this method, sentence is the unit of speech which makes the method psychologically sound. (h) The Story Method It is the expansion of the sentence method, using a sequence of sentences in the form of a story as the unit of instruction in early reading activities. As stories have a universal appeal for children, it is claimed that the story method ensures keen interest in reading activities, thus overcoming some of the disadvantages of the word and sentence

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methods. It also provides a more complete unit of thought than the sentence, because it carries the reader through an entire series of events which have a beginning sequence and an end.

1.2.1.5. Some Difficulties in Reading Here are some difficulties in reading and ways of dealing up with them. 1. Monotony Reading—Some students have a sing-song tone which they carry all through the life. There are some people who read their newspaper as if they were saying their prayers. These people have been the victim of a system which paid no attention to reading. This monotony can be removed; (a) by the model reading of the teacher, (b) by speech training; (c) by the development of the normal reading speed. The model reading of the teacher is an important factor in any reading lesson. The reading of the pupil cannot be better than that of his teacher. For the pupil, the teacher’s pronunciation with intonation is ideal and he tries to imitate. Speech training is given through intensive oral practice and good deal of drill while reading aloud and giving such practice that they develop normal reading speed. 2. Grindstone Reading—The main characteristics of this type of reading are dullness, lack of intonation and this shows that the pupil is not interested of the reading, the teacher should create interest in the lesson with the help of pictures and conversations. 3. Mis-pronunciation—It may be due to defective speech training at the early stages or carelessness in reading. It may also be due to the fact that the subject-matter is difficult. It is necessary that difficult words are thoroughly drilled to the pupil. 4. Nervousness of Children—Some children feel nervous when they are asked to read in the class. They find difficult to face the class. They are stage shy. In order to remove their nervousness, the teacher should divide the class into small groups in such a way the every group has a brilliant student. The student who feel nervous while facing the class should be encouraged to read before this group. When they

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acquire confidence in reading before this small group, they will be able to face the class. 5. In-ability to break up sentences into proper phrases— The pupil may not be able to break up sentences in to proper phrase while reading due to his inability to recognize thought units. He may be having short eye span or may be unable to profit by punctuation marks. The pupil should group words in sentences according to thought relationship and give attention to punctuation marks. 6. Unable to answer the questions on the material read— This happens when the pupil is reading without definite purpose in view. His background to understand the material may be inadequate. The teacher should give questions to the pupils, to find answers. In the beginning, the pupil should be made to read a paragraph and answer questions on it. Gradually the amount read before asking questions should be increased. 7. Pointing with the Finger—It may be due to the poor beginning methods or difficult material. It may also be because of poor vision or nervousness. The pupil should be offered attractive reading material. He should be made to understand that pointing with the finger retards his speed. 8. Stammering—Stammering can be physiological as well as psychological. In the former case, the child should be advised to consult a doctor. In the latter case, the child should be asked to do some breathing exercises. If confidence can be developed in the child it will cure stammering psychologically, The teacher should be sympathetic in dealing such a child.

1.2.2. Concept of Writing ‘‘Writing has an instrumental value in school. It is means of preserving the knowledge which the pupil has gained or the judgements he has formed. It serves as check on his forgetting useful items of knowledge and ideas. The habit of making notes

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of what is read and of summarising helps the recollection of what has been studied.’’ Writing develops pupils’ insight, and unlocks the door to learning. Growth in reading is a continuous process. Some students acquire languages in a purely oral/aural way, but most of us benefit greatly from seeing the language written down. The visual demonstration of language construction is invaluable for both our understanding of how it all fits together and as an aid to committing the new language to memory. Students often find it useful to write sentence using new language shortly after they have studied it. Most people never consider the complexity and difficulty of the writing process. In fact, relative to all other academic activities, writing requires more basic skills than perhaps any other. Even during their earliest handwriting exercises, children must combine complex physical and cognitive processes to render letters precisely and fluidly. As writing tasks become more difficult, students must call on an increasingly wide range of skills to not only write legibly, logically, and in an organized way but also to invoke rules of grammar and syntax. This combination of requirements makes writing the most complex and difficult use of language. It is probably no accident that many adults have chosen jobs that limit the amount of writing they have to do. Unfortunately, children have no such luxury. From first grade on, they write nearly every day and they are asked to do more with this skill than with any other except reading. And as children progress through school, writing requirements — from homework assignments and class work to note taking and tests — increase across the curriculum. Even newer highstakes tests are moving towards requiring more answers in the form of short paragraphs and essays. Like all learning problems, a writing disability can be devastating to a child’s education and self-esteem and can dramatically limit what that child can achieve later in life. School requirements demand a high level of writing proficiency, and a child who struggles with an unrecognized writing disability will find it increasingly difficult to express

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his knowledge on many subjects, as the writing process itself will stand firmly in the way of learning. I. Problem and the Importance of Academic Writing Academic writing serves as communication tool for conveying acquired knowledge in a specific field of study. It therefore features a serious tone and is often demonstrative of particular theories and facts related to a given argument. Academic writing is studied to enhance learning development or for use in assessing course comprehension. It is the mode of presentation of academic papers. Academic writing however faces many hindrances—The complexity of the writing process often leads to learner dissatisfaction, especially following a tedious routine or doing a dull revision. To execute the production of a quality academic paper requires skills for the craft. The dynamic nature of higher education is nurturing a major hitch in the support and development of academic writing. Citing the rising number students, the system has drifted from a slim team to a crowd; there is an evident failure in the funding agencies to keep abreast with the swelling need for resources. The government yet plans to expand the number of higher education students substantially in the coming years. This expansion has led to proliferation of the diversity of students, with higher education institutions receiving entrants with varied academic standing and variegated cultural backgrounds. The ensuing resource deficiency in many institutions overstretches both the learning facilities and the academic staff. What follows is a dire need for a radical transformation in teacher performance attitudes in order to cope with these new challenges facing the higher education sector. The highlighted problem adversely affects the arena of academic writing, both in the teaching process and practical implementation. The big challenge is how to be effective under the difficulties of diversity and numbers. You can picture a handful writing teachers handling the problems of hundreds of second language students of multicultural backgrounds with varying academic potential.

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II. Academic writing remains a major role player in higher education, both in course retention and the consequent assessment of student knowledge. Its significance therefore cannot be underscored. A study reveals that up to 90% of staff agrees it is essential to teach academic writing to university students. Academic writing fosters the students’ ability to express themselves by understanding of the language used and the ability to communicate; this is the essence of education and a requirement to serve in the area of discipline. Teachers’ viewpoint stands that when the work is well written and arguments displayed concisely and precisely, marking becomes a lot easier. There is therefore no gainsaying the development of effective academic writing support is reciprocally beneficial to both students and staff. In a nutshell, academic writing holds great significance and therefore needs much attention and support from the academic fraternity. By leveraging multiples practical approaches to enhance quality practical writing, academic institutions have the opportunity to harness effective frameworks to assist students in the academic advancement. Inherent in every writing theory is the ability to improve any students’ writing finesse by applying practical initiatives. It is therefore of great essence to implement and evaluate practical writing methods at all levels within entire institutions in order to capture a range of resources. This is guaranteed to assure student engagement, participation, retention and overall course satisfaction.

1.2.2.1. Meaning of Writing Skills In teaching learning of Language, there are four basic skills and proper order is listening, speaking, reading and writing. But this doesn’t mean that the fourth skill, writing is the least important of the language skills. Infact writing is an important aspect of teaching language, and it should be introduced just after word-recognition exercises. It stresses oral and reading work so it helps in fixing in the minds the linguistic items already learnt by them. Writing is one of the communication skills.

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Definitions : 1. “To give shape and beautify the alphabet or letters is also called writing.” 2. Bacon, “Writing makes one a perfect man.” 3. According to the opinion of a scholar, “Such a situation-when a person expressing the thoughts, is able to express his though as and when he wishes and for the person for whom he has expressed his thoughts, is able to know those thoughts whenever and wherever he wishes for the same.” 4. Bell, “Writing is a means to express thoughts of one’s mind which is that much important for everyone as is the oral expression (spoken).” 5. “To express the thoughts after writing is itself called Writing Skill.” S.S.M. Gaudar also agrees to it saying, “Writing has instrumental value in school. It is a means of preserving the knowledge which the pupil has gained or the judgements he has formed. It serves as a check on his forgetting useful items of knowledge and ideas. The habit of making notes of what is read and of summarising helps the recollection of what has been studied,” Bell also said, “Writing is a difficult art; it required complete control of the muscles of the hand and wrist and this control a small child does not naturally possess.” And the most important recommendation is from. ‘The Teacher Speaks’, Vol. II, “In spite of increased availability, popularity and use of mechanical means of communication, both in school and outside there is little reason to believe the handwriting will be displaced as the major means of written communication. It is universally acknowledged that English handwriting has a vital role to play in the composite school curriculum. Beautiful handwriting not only attracts the reader but the writer also experiences pleasure in the process of writing.”

1.2.2.2. Importance and Principles of Writing A. Importance of Writing—The languages of today have come to stay for a major part of their function, as written languages. So the

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importance of developing the skill of writing in pupils cannot be overemphasised. Writing is important in class : 1. To learn spelling, punctuation, use of capital letters, etc. ; 2. To reinforce vocabulary and structures already mastered orally ; 3. To keep a written record of what has been learnt ; and 4. To practise for achievement tests. 5. To learn the motor skills of good handwriting ; Writing is needed in everyday life: 1. To take notes from books, newspapers, lectures, etc. 2. To keep records and to maintain a diary ; and 3. To express oneself in prose or poetry. 4. To conduct personal and business correspondence ; B. Principles for Teaching Writing—Teaching writing to have good results should be based on some principles which are briefly given here below : 1. Principle of Gradation—The material should be in graded form. After the selection of material, it should be graded. That will help the learners write easily and interestingly. 2. Principle of Motivation—While writing, the children should be encouraged in every possible way. Some sort of prizes for good handwriting may be announced. That will help them write with care and it will result into good handwriting of the students. 3. Principle of Utility—The material being used in writing should have its utility. It must be of some help to them in one way or the other. 4. Principle of Oral Practice—Oral acquaintance of the material for the students will help them write correctly. It will also reduce the chances of committing errors. 5. Principle of Proper Selection of Material —The material to be used in writing should be well selected. It should be according to the mental level of the learners.

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6. Principle of Follow-up—Follow up in every activity and in every work is of utmost importance. That makes the person more alert from the beginning. It also helps every body - the teacher as well as the learner to work systematically. Whatever aims are fixed, can also be achieved.

1.2.2.3. Mechanics of Writing F.G. French rightly says, “Give writing its due; but, in the first three years, do not allow it to late up time which should be given to more useful kinds of English work.’’ There are different stages for teaching writing to the students as follows: Stage I. Pre-writing Stage—Teaching writing involves manual skill i.e. the skill of controlling the small muscles of the fingers, the wrist and securing co-ordination of the hand and the eye. Secondly, it involves doing various exercises in written work. While teaching writing, the type of learner has to be kept in mind. There is a category of learners who have not even learnt writing of any language. And in other category, there are learners who are already acquainted with the writing of mother tongue. In the first category, teacher has to give the training of even how to sit, how to hold a notebook and pen in a hand. Then afterwards they are given practice by writing with the chalks on the blackboards displayed on the walls of the classroom for them. At this stage, teacher gives the students the training of free-hand drawing, without the strain of getting to learn writing. They may be asked to draw free-hand lines on the blackboards or on large sheets. The above shapes may be drawn on the four line notebooks. Stage II. Writing Stage—At this stage, they are in the position to begin with the learning of shapes of the alphabets. In teaching the writing of alphabet, letters may be grouped according to their curves and from simple movements to complicated ones. Freeman has recommended the following six groups for small letters :

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1. i, u, w 2. n, m, v, n. 3. a, e, o, c. 4. r, s. 5. d, p, q, t 6. 1, b, h, k, j, g, y, z, f There is no rigidity in the classification of these groups. Alice E. Stephens has suggested the following groups: Group I. - First group with letters involving the stroke from top to bottom i, n, t, p, w, v, m, n, r Group II. - Second group with letters involving a round stroke as o, a, d, c, e, q Group III. - Third group with letters involving loops. b, f, y, h, j, k, l, z Group IV. - Fourth group with letters involving curves and strokes s, x Capital letters should be taught after all the small letters have learnt. Prof. F.G. French has suggested the following group for capitals letters : Group I. Rounded Capitals (each filling one circle) O, Q, C, G, D Group II. Square capitals (each filling one square) S, H, N, M, T, Z, A, X, U Group III. Half square capitals (each filling half a square) F, E, L, X, Y, I, J Group IV. Half circle S, P, B, R. Stage III. Word Writing—After the students have got grip on proper strokes and right shapes of letters the students may be given training for joining the letters to form words. The teacher should

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properly demonstrate how letters are joined to form words. Initially, they should write the names of the things they are associated with and they observe in their daily life, even they love writing the names of their friends, parents, teachers etc. Stage IV. Sentence Writing—After learning to join words, the stage forming sentences begins. Students are given training in copying the sentences from the blackboard or from sentence cards or from their reader books by the teacher.

1.2.2.4. Considerations for Teaching Writing to Beginners (1) The Choice of Script—Choosing a script is an important consideration for teaching writing. It should be decided by the teacher that which script in writing should be introduced to the pupils. Basically, we have two kinds of scripts viz - print script and cursive script. Besides this a rounded cursive script is also there which is called Marion Richardson’s scrip. (a) Print Script—In print script, each letter stands distinct as if in print form. The letters are not joined together. It is that kind of script which a learner finds in his day-to-day life while reading books. This type of script also looks beautiful and clean as compared to other script. Unnecessary strokes for joining different letters are also eliminated in this script. Children can find errors in the formation of letters when they will compare their own letter formations with the printed material. This script writing also involves less amount of eye strain and hand movements easy. As recommended by “The Hand Book of Suggestions for Teachers “ that “in the beginning the symbols used should resemble those they (the pupils) have been accustomed to see in print.” But, there are few disadvantages of print script also. These are as follows: 1. According to a pamphlet issued by the British Board of Education on the print script states that, “The end is to equip the individual with a final cursive handwriting i. e. facile and legible,”

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If our end is to teach cursive writing ultimately, the time should not be wasted in teaching the print script. 2. Print script improves handwriting to some extent, but it consumes lot of time and energy. 3. It proves as a hindrance in path of speed which is essential for writing. (b) Cursive Writing–The another name of cursive writing is running writing. In this type of writing, different strokes, loops and curves connect the words with each other. This is the actual style of handwriting which is expected from our students to adopt. This style is natural, speedy, rhythmic and uniform in style. Following are the few advantages of cursive writing : 1. This writing gives the maximum speed. 2. Cursive writing looks very beautiful and attractive. 3. Cursive writing avoid unnecessary gaps and jerks, which make the movements of the hands comfortable and avoids unnecessary stops. 4. The practice of cursive script should be given at initial stage, so that students may not face difficulty to switch over to cursive script later on. (2) The Choice of Style—Choosing the appropriate style is very important consideration before introducing writing. Usually, teacher recommends vertical style of writing to the students. Yet it should not be imposed upon, the pupil’s interest may be regarded as the main factor. If slanted style is to be considered, then forward slant (/) should be encouraged, as backward slant (\) hinders the speed. The important consideration is that uniformity in style should be maintained. (3) The Choice of Writing Material—The choice of writing material also needs careful selection. In the initial stages pupils should begin with writing on the rough surface with soft chalk with which children will acquire easy hand movements and simultaneously hand and eye-cordination will be developed. At later stages, they should learn to write on paper with soft lead pencils, followed by writing with special writing nibs. (4) Right Posture—The teacher of English should see to it that students should be taught the right posture to sit, while writing, in what

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position to place the notebook upon the desk and so on. The child should sit upright and squarely on the seat. Prof. Frisby has stated, “A child when preparing to write should be required to sit upright and squarely on the seat, with his shoulders level and parallel to the desk or table and with his feet placed firmly in front of him on the floor (or the foot-rest), the weight of the body being evenly disturbed so as to avoid the bunching up of one shoulder. His head should be held so that his eyes are about a foot away from the paper. His chest should be clear of the edge of the table or desk. Both forearms to be within two or three inches of the elbows and should rest lightly on the table or desk.” 1.2.2.5. Essentials of Good Handwriting The major two essentials of good handwriting are legibility and speed. A third factor which may not be considered one of the essentials is beauty also. In the edition of Handbook of Suggestions (1927), the four essentials of good handwriting are - distinctiveness, simplicity, spacing and uniformity. Following are the few more essentials of good handwriting : 1. Distinctiveness and Legibility—This means that each letter should have its own characteristic form. Every letter in a word and every word in a sentence should be distinct. The letters should not intermingle with each other. Superfluous strokes should be avoided in writing. As Mr. Bell says, “Illegible handwriting in a young man or woman is a sign of an untidy and careless mind.” So legibility becomes another requirement of good handwriting. 2. Simplicity—There should be no unnecessary ornamentation in writing. Simple letter shapes appeal more to the eyes. 3. Uniformity—The letters should be of moderate and even size. The height of the short letters should not be more than three millimeter and the projection of the lowest letters above the short letters and below the line should not be more than one and a half time the height of the short letters. One kind of slant should be permitted and uneven strokes should be avoided.

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4. Spacing—Words should be neatly spaced, no word being connected by a stroke with the following word or separated from it by too wide interval. Even if the letters of a word are not united by strokes, their placement should be such that the word clearly forms a whole.

1.2.2.6. Dynamics of Writing Writing is an important skill especially in India. Our examination system is based on the efficiency by memory as well as writing ability of the individual. Writing is a reflective activity and needs continuous guidance. The ultimate aim of teaching writing is the ability to compose and write creatively by pupils. We start from concrete aspect of writing to conclude at abstract writing or creative writing. Our aim, therefore, is to develop our organised writing. Rote memory should be discouraged and for this creative writing be duly rewarded and appreciated. Good handwriting should also get recognition. It will motivate the whole class. 1. Reinforcement and Motivation—In absence of teacher’s motivation or timely reinforcement, the pupils lack interest in writing. Everyone is motivated by positivity, appreciation, recognition and encouragement. As writing is a psychological process, all these psychological tactics are to be adopted to encourage writers, i.e. the pupils in this case. When a poet says a couplet in ‘poetical symposium’, the audience says, “Wah! Wah! Phir se!” The poet is happy, motivated and obliged. Same is with the pupils. 2. The Writing Task—The writing tasks serve the purpose of practice. Initiating these tasks should be in concrete from just to train muscles and improve handwriting. Ultimately, tasks involving self composition should be assigned. This task should be according to mental age level and interest of the pupils. Too lengthy and too tough writing tasks will discourage the pupils. 3. Writing Objectives—Much depends upon the objectives the teacher has in mind while teaching writing. Teacher should be aware

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whether he aims at improving handwriting mechanically or promoting creative writing. The strategies should be adopted according to the objective. As we want the learners to write individually and enjoy the task, we should aim at : (i) Ultimately, writing should be a tool for developing logical thinking. (ii) To integrate writing with speaking, listening and reading to broaden the writing task. (iii) To help pupils choose appropriate writing script, style and strategy according to their capabilities. 4. The activity—Oral discussion, a “mind map” and a reading text are the prompts to make writing a holistic activity. We simply set an environment for their detailed discussion on the topic they are going to write about. They discuss its details, merits and demerits with friendly discussion and then write at their own. The will be able to create a “mind map” to develop the topic. This gives them necessary input before actual writing.

1.2.2.7. Methods of Teaching Writing There are four methods of teaching writing namely: 1. Kindergarten method 2. Tracing method 3. Free imitation method 4. F.G. French’s method Now, here we present a detail of every method by enlisting respective peculiarities. 1. Kindergarten Method—Based on Kindergarten method of education, this method uses a kindergarten box. Pieces of wood or plastic in different colours, shapes and sizes are in it. English alphabetsboth capital and small, can be formed by joining these pieces. Afterwards, they are taught to form words with these letters. Being purely psychological and stress free, it is highly recommended by experts for beginners. Its advantages are as follows:

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(a) Advantages : (i) It leaves no burden on pupils. So, it is stress free. (ii) It is psychological. (iii) It is natural and easy for tiny tots. (iv) Pupils learn in an interesting way while playing. But still we can’t rule out the following limitations: (b) Limitations : (i) This method can’t yield equally good results for all pupils. A few pupils excel while others, shy ones, can lag behind. (ii) Indian schools, which introduce English in VI class, have no use of this method. The pupils of VI class are mature enough. 2. Tracing Method—In this method, the learner has to write letters with pencil over the printed or written letters. These letters are either written on dotted lines or in a frame as follows:

In this style the teacher writes the letters in pupil’s note book and he has just to overwrite. Special work books are also used to practice writing. This is ideal for beginners. (a) Advantages : (i) Madam Montessori was a great admirer of this method. She asked her pupils to pass their fingers over letters. (ii) Learning by imitation is ideal for beginners. (iii) Pupils can write accurately even in the absence of teacher. (iv) With the model writing, they can compare their own free hand writing. So, a scope for self evaluation is there. (v) Pupils find overwriting easy and quite interesting. (vi) This technique is motivating. When they feel that they write legibly and accurately at their own, beginners acquire more confidence.

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(vii) Pupils learn the accurate formation of letter as no chances of wrong formation are there. But a few limitations are as follows: (b) Limitations : (i) Pupils learn just by imitation but when they switch over to self writing, they find it difficult and irritating. (ii) Individual differences also create problems. All students may not find it appropriates. (iii) It is tough for the teacher to find individual mistakes as pupils just overwrite. (iv) It makes a pupil dependent and fond of spoon feeding. So, it discourages the habit of hard work. 3. Free Imitation Method : Here, teacher gives a model of the letter to be taught, on blackboard or on first line of pupil’s note book. From blackboard pupils copy the model letters in their note-books free handed. Bell suggests that the model letters should be written on flash cards. Since students imitate or copy the model letters on the basis of their own perception and imagination, so there is more retention. That’s why it is referred to as free imitation. (a) Advantages : (i) Individual differences and mistakes can be easily found by the teacher. (ii) Pupils are not just to imitate by over writing but uses their own creativity, ability and skill. (iii) Spoon feeding is discouraged making pupils independent. (iv) Sense of satisfaction and upliftment of pupils’ confidence is there due to independent activity. (b) Limitations : (i) It involves slow learning as writing is free hand and full of mistakes.

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(ii) Pupils get discouraged due to mistakes. (iii) Due to lack of immediate correction, the child may learn incorrect forms of letters forever. (iv) Teacher has to take care of each and every letter of each and every pupil. This is just impossible in Indian overcrowded classes. (v) As individual attention is impossible for every letter of every pupils, there are high chances of wrong learning. 4. F.G. French’s Method—French was not in favour of teaching beginning writing letters straight. First of all some free movements should be there by pupils whether in a tray of sand or with chalk on a brown paper as:

After these free movements, controlled movements should be taught throughs the following procedure: Procedure : (i) Teaching Circles—Pupil practice the writing of circular forms of different shapes and sizes. These structures help them in learning letters containing circles or semi-circles, e.g. G, O, Q etc.

(ii) Teaching combining Strokes and Circles—Some letters involve both i.e. the strokes and circles like, D, B, p, q, b, d etc. For them pupils are asked to practice the forms combining strokes and circles.

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(iii) Teaching Curves—For more complex letters like s, j, g etc., pupils are made to practice curves only. (iv) Teaching Strokes—First of all, following strokes should be taught, involving straight lines. These strokes help them to learn the writing of letters involving straight lines, e. g. A, E, F, H, I, K, L, M, N, T, W, X, Y, Z. (v) Teaching combining Strokes and curves—Still some letters are left as h, m, n, r, u, f etc. which are written with the combination of curves and strokes. Practice of following structures train pupil’s hands to write these letters legibly. This is the procedure recommended by French. He has grouped small letters in his own discovered sequence as he recommended teaching of small letters first. The sequence to be followed by the teacher is given below: oacedqgp mnhrfjlityz wvxzk s This method is followed in most of the convent and English medium schools these days. It has all the merits and demerits of free imitation method. The biggest advantage, however, remains its psychological approach and stress free procedure.

1.3. Role of Critical Reading and Critical Thinking in Enhancing Writing Skills Reading critically does not, necessarily, mean being critical of what you read. Both reading and thinking critically don’t mean being ‘critical’ about some idea, argument or piece of writing - claiming that it is somehow faulty or flawed. Critical reading means engaging in

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what you read by asking yourself questions such as, ‘what is the author trying to say?’ or ‘what is the main argument being presented?’ Critical reading involves presenting a reasoned argument that evaluates and analyses what you have read.  Being critical, therefore in an academic sense - means advancing your understanding, not dismissing and therefore closing off learning. As a critical reader we should reflect on: ² What the text says:  after critically reading a piece you should be able to take notes, paraphrasing - in your own words - the key points. ² What the text describes: you should be confident that you have understood the text sufficiently to be able to use your own examples and compare and contrast with other writing on the subject in hand. ² Interpretation of the text: this means that you should be able to fully analyse the text and state a meaning for the text as a whole. Critical reading means being able to reflect on what a text says, what it describes and what it means by scrutinising the style and structure of the writing, the language used as well as the content. I. Critical Thinking is an Extension of Critical Reading Thinking critically, in the academic sense, involves being openminded - using judgement and discipline to process what you are learning about without letting your personal bias or opinion detract from the arguments.  Critical thinking involves being rational and aware of your own feelings on the subject – being able to reorganise your thoughts, prior knowledge and understanding to accommodate new ideas or viewpoints. Critical reading and critical thinking are therefore the very foundations of true learning and personal development.

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a. Developing a Reading Strategy You will, in formal learning situations, be required to read and critically think about a lot of information from different sources.  It is important therefore, that you not only learn to read critically but also efficiently. b. The first step to efficient reading is to become selective. f. If you cannot read all of the books on a recommended reading list, you need to find a way of selecting the best texts for you. To start with, you need to know what you are looking for.  You can then examine the contents page and/or index of a book or journal to ascertain whether a chapter or article is worth pursuing further. c. Once you have selected a suitable piece the next step is to speed-read. Speed reading is also often referred to as skim-reading or scanning.  Once you have identified a relevant piece of text, like a chapter in a book, you should scan the first few sentences of each paragraph to gain an overall impression of subject areas it covers.  Scan-reading essentially means that you know what you are looking for, you identify the chapters or sections most relevant to you and ignore the rest. When you speed-read you are not aiming to gain a full understanding of the arguments or topics raised in the text.  It is simply a way of determining what the text is about.  When you find a relevant or interesting section you will need to slow your reading speed dramatically, allowing you to gain a more indepth understanding of the arguments raised.  Even when you slow your reading down it may well be necessary to read passages several times to gain a full understanding. II. How to Read Critically Whenever you read, read to understand “how,” “why,” and “what.” Look for the elements of reasoning: purpose, question at issue,

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point of view, information, concepts, implications, assumptions, conclusions, context, and alternatives. The following guidelines will help to read critically. 1. Look for the author’s main point and mark it when you find it. 2. When you see a word, acronym, sentence and paragraph that you do not know or understand, mark it and look it up later. 3. Pause from time-to-time to think about what you have read and review your notes. 4. With pencil in hand, skim the contents of the document. Pay attention to clarity of chapter titles, headings, diagrams, graphics and illustrations. 5. Write key ideas and main points in the margins. When you reread the document later, you can quickly skim the text for main ideas without re-reading the entire text. 6. Ask “What?” Why?” “Who?” “How?” and “So what?” questions. If the answers are unclear—mark it. Keep a log of your questions, ideas, findings and comments. 7. Look for connections to other documents that might be helpful as resources. 8. Pay attention to reasoning. If the reasons are not clear to you— mark them and look them up later. 9. Re-read the document and compare your initial findings with your new understanding. Have your questions been answered? If not, who can answer them? This level of reading is not practical if reading for pleasure. However, this level of reading will help you to achieve a deeper understanding of the topic if you are reading a report or product documentation, reading a book to write a book review or reading a proposal. III. How to Apply Critical Thinking to Reading There are many positive and useful uses of critical thinking such as formulating a workable solution to complex problems, deliberating

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as a group about what action to take, and analyzing assumptions. Critical thinking contributes to deeper understanding and challenging accepted wisdom with strong arguments, and allows for more completely developed thoughts. The following advice will help you to apply critical thinking to writing. ² Read with an open mind. ² Challenge the currency and validity of the information with an aim towards deeper clarification and understanding. ² Find answers to “What?” Why?” “Who?” “How?” and “So what?” questions. ² Assume that processes and procedures are incomplete until you have tested them yourself. If you apply these guidelines to your reading, you will notice the ease by which you gain more from what you read. You might not discover the answers to all questions, but you will be better prepared to consult subject matter experts to answer some of them. IV. How Critical Reading and Supports Substantive Writing According to the Foundation for Critical Thinking, any significant deficiency in reading entails a parallel deficiency in writing. Likewise, any significant deficiency in writing entail0s a parallel deficiency in reading. Simply stated, if you have poor reading skills, you are likely to have poor writing skills. Critical reading means being actively engaged in what you read by developing a clear understanding of the author’s ideas, evaluating the arguments and evidence provided to support these arguments, and forming your own opinions. Critical thinking clarifies goals, examines assumptions, finds hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. By employing critical reading and critical thinking, you gain more from what you read. The outcome is that you can summarize a paragraph or two of what you have read.

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V. According to the Foundation for Critical Thinking, by enhancing critical reading and critical thinking skills, we enhance our writing skills. ² Distinguish justifiable from unjustifiable assumptions: that an author is using, or that we are using in our own thinking as we write. ² Trace logical implications: those of an author’s thinking, and those that may follow from our writing. ² Formulate clear questions: those that an author is asking (as we read) and questions we are pursuing (as we write). ² Distinguish accurate and relevant information from inaccurate and irrelevant information: in texts that we read and in preparation for our own writing. ² Clarify purposes: an author’s purpose (when you read) and your purpose (when you write). ² Reach logical inferences and conclusions: based on what we read, and in preparation for writing. ² Identify significant and deep concepts: those of an author and those we can to guide our thinking while we write. ² Identify and think within multiple viewpoints: those that an author presents and those relevant to the issues of our writing

EXERCISE Essay Type Questions 1. Write the importance of the concept of critical Thinking. 2. Discuss the significance of critical thinking skills. 3. How teacher can teach critical thinking ? Describe the various tools to teach critical thinking. 4. Reading is Very Important, Why ? Describe the characteristics of Reading. 5. Describe the various methods for teaching reading.

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6. 7. 8. 9.

Explain the difficulties in the way of reading. What is the importance of writing skills ? Write in detail. Describe the various mechanics of writing. What are the essentials of good handwriting ? Explain in detail.

Short Answer Type Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Describe the benefits of critical thinking skills in brief. Write a short note of critical thinking and academic reading. Describe the meaning and importance of reading. Explain the mechanics of Reading. What do you mean by Phonic Method ? Discuss the look and say method. Give two definitions about writing skills. Write the various methods of teaching writing.

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2.1. Concept of Developing Reading Skills Reading can be defined as the process of looking at and understanding the meaning of a piece of writing by interpreting the characters or symbols of which it is composed. Reading is a highly interactive phenomenon. This interaction takes place through the activity of reading, which is itself a complex interplay between local level bottom-up strategies concernedwith the identification of meaning from the level of word upwards and increasingly more globallevels of topdown, higher order mental processes and background knowledge. There are several skills to reading that are vital to people involved in the process of reading inorder to understand a particular text or piece of writing. Bell explains that, “ metacognitive awareness in reading is important in the sense that it involves a number of abilities.” He further adds that this process approach to reading is concerned with monitoring of cognition which entails an active, engaged and critical process of recognizing problems with information presented in texts and in this process understanding one’s own comprehension problems. However, such an approach demands to situate the process of reading within the social domain in order to be effective and efficient. Reading is about developing ways of seeing through texts, the descriptions of cultures andworlds and how the text try to position or influence the reader to be part of the cultures andworlds. Reading texts is therefore always necessarily a “complex conjoining of “word” and”world”, “text” and “context”. It enables the reader to become aware of how reading skills could be used to read purposefully, actively and critically. 57

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Reading requires one to know how deep to study a material written by a particular author. Theother skill of reading is the skimming process of reading which occurs when the reader need theshallowest knowledge of a particular subject or piece of writing. This is important as it enablesone not to go into details but to get the surface information that will be able to give only an ideaor what is involved in the text or book. For example one can only read the chapter headings, introductions and summaries of a particular text. This means that when one reads theintroduction of a book will be able to understand what or who the material is intended for andwhat it is covered in the entire book. The chapter headings enable the reader to be able to havethe overall view of the structure of the subject being discussed in the book. The other skill of reading is the process of scanning the text or piece of writing of a particular  book.  It occurs or is used when the  reader only needs  the moderate  level of information  on asubject and not more detailed or shallow. This is where the reader reads the chapters headings,introduction and summaries in a more detailed than the skimming process of reading. It enablesone to speed read the contents of the chapters, picking out and understanding key words and concepts in a material. This skill of reading requires the reader to pay attention todiagrams and graphs when reading. When reading in order to get full knowledge of a subject it is worthy to study the text in detail so as to get the full understanding of the material. It is important to practice active reading which refers to the process to learn certain strategies in order to remember and comprehend what is being read. It is important in the sense that it works in connection with the skimming and scanning reading skills. This means that active reading and other skills are interdependent in nature. For example when the reader is reading a text in detail it is important first to start with skimming the material in order to get an

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overview of the subject and this gives an understandingof its structure, into which the reader can read in detail or fit the detail gained from full readingof the material. Active reading skill is vital in the sense that it helps to save time when reading unlike simply reading and re-reading the course material in an unfocused way takes more time than one can afford, and it is not an effective and efficient way to understand and learn. Active readingenables the reader to get to grip with the content and save time in the long run. It is alsoimportant to understand that active reading also requires the development of thoughts and ideasin response to the text. In terms of reading to collect data and retain information, active readingskills are vital in the sense that they act as a catalyst for critical thinking skills that must be applied in a systematic way (Cobb).It is important to understand that it differs fromreading something passively, which is typically what most of the people do when reading merely for entertainment. This means that active reading enables the reader to think critically, formulating questions about a particular piece of writing in order to analyze purposes andassumptions. Ultimately, this process helps the reader to understand and retain what beingstudied and assists in mastering academic reading. This mastery leads to a successful collegeexperience. These skills will also serve well in future profession that will require the applicationof reading. The skill of active reading is also concerned with the issue of making annotations in the marginswhen reading in order to summarize the points, raise questions, challenge the material that is being read.  It also  involves the process  of jotting down examples  and  other  relevant information. This can be applied especially when the reader is using books or e-texts.This requires more thought than highlighting the text on the part of the reader. This way itenables one to remember the content better and easily. For example one can write a summary of an essay or chapter in his or her own words. This allows capturing

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the essential ideas and perhaps one or two key examples from the text. This approach offers a great way to be sure thatyou know what the reading material really says or is about (Cobb). The skill of active reading is also considered to be the ability to read critically by way of asking questions of the text being studied. By critical reading means one must be able to ask questions such as who wrote it? When? Who is the intended group of people? What was the context of thetext? Why did the writer talk about this subject? (Bell).It also brings about the issue of self assessment by the reader. For example the reader is able test his or herself by reading for half anhour, then putting the text away and jotting down the key points from memory. Then going back to the text to fill in gaps and it enhances memory of the reader. In conclusion reading is vital activity in the sense that the understanding of the various skills andtheir relationship enhances the ability to apply and comprehend various text or materials. It enables one to engage or get involved in the material through previewing, reading and reviewing. It is true to say that the skills are dependent on each other, for example before one engages inactive reading in order to get the details of the text will either engage firstly in skimming or scanning which also leads to formulation of questions to guide reading process.

2.1.1. Different Stages of Teaching Writing Skills Reading is the most useful skills a school can attempt to teach. When Gandhiji said, ‘Mere literacy is not enough’, he meant that education must provide teaching of the three R’s. Reading the printed symbol, the child recalls the sound hidden in that symbol and it is this sound that conveys the meaning of that symbol. So, we not only see and read a printed word but also talk it to grasp its meaning “Learning thus to talk,” observes Prof. C. C. Fries “constitutes the basis upon which a child must build to learn to read.”

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So, “the process of learning to read is the process to transfer from the auditory signs of language signals which the child has already learned, to the new visual signs for the same signals.” The development of reading skills among the students is one of the major objectives of teaching a language.Ateacher cannot develop such skills in his students unless he possesses the required skills in himself. These teaching skills are : 1. Skill of Organising Practice Sessions—Language learning is possible mainly by imitation. Even for the proper development of reading skills, imitation is required. That is why model reading is generally presented by most of the teachers. Even after correction of mistakes committed by the students in reading, there is need to give sufficient practice. If such practice is given without any planning, it fails to give adequate results. The teacher must keep the students active. They must be encouraged to read with the help of audio-visual aids also. The teacher may use flash cards, command cards, requests, film slides etc. Practice in reading short stories, parts of some scenes from some oneact play, may increase students’interest in reading. 2. Preparation of Reading Material —Sometimes it happens that the teacher fails to get any ready-made reading material. In such a situation, the responsibility of preparing the reading material lies with the teacher. The teacher should have a good habit of getting the latest information. Unless the teacher is aware of the latest knowledge available, he will not be able to prepare proper reading material for his students. He must pay due attention to all considerations of age, mental level, linguistic background, interest, motivation, vocabulary, structures, style, variety etc. 3. Selection of Reading Material—The development of reading skills is essential for proper linguistic development of an individual. Thus, there is need for good reading material. Anything or everything cannot be taken to be the reading material. For this, the teacher needs

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to be an expert in identification and selection of the reading material. He knows well the interests and expectation as well as the psycho-physical requirements of his students. He is to select the reading material suitably. The content should be of great interest to the learners. It should provide variety to them. The teacher must try to select reading material that helps in the personality development of his students. The students should be provided such reading material as may help them in the cultivation of good habits. The development of various social moral values, patriotism and love for humanity should also be the objective while selecting the subject-matter. 4. Presentation of Reading Material —The English Teacher in a school is required to present the reading material to his students in accordance with their needs. This presentation has been viewed differently. Firstly, the teacher has to ensure that such reading material is in the prescribed books-both textbooks and supplementary books. Then he must also try to develop skills for proper organization of the reading material. The teacher’s reading is supposed to be a model one which the learners have to imitate. Therefore, each word must be read with correct use of punctuation marks. The teacher should modulate his own voice as per the need and requirement of the content. The meaning of the difficult words and phrases must be explained. 5. Skill of Asking Questions—The skills of teaching reading also include the skill of asking questions. This is a very significant skill because the learner remains active by using this skill. Questions can be asked before presenting the reading material, during its presentation, or after the teacher has presented the contents. Sometimes asking questions is considered to be something very easy, but in fact, it is not so. The teacher has to be very particular in asking questions and ensure that only proper and relevant questions are asked. The skill of asking questions does include the way a teacher presents the questions in the classroom. The teacher should ask the questions with a correct pitch so that the questions are audible to all the students. The pronunciation, stress, pauses, intonation, etc. of the teacher should be proper.

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6. Skill of Diagnosing Reading Difficulties—Most of the students have one or the other difficulty in reading. The teacher’s job includes enabling the students to find solutions to their difficulties in reading. The teacher will be able to perform his task efficiently only when he himself is very well aware of this responsibility. This is an important skill required in a teacher both for silent reading and loud reading. 7. Skill for Evaluation of Reading Skills—The teacher is required to assess the reading skills. He has to plan the evaluation work properly, keeping in mind the level of the learners. Simple words and short sentences can be given to the students for evaluation of reading aloud. The teacher has to assess their reading abilities on the basis of correctness of pronunciation. The teacher may plan activities where the learners are required to read aloud. Similarly, some pictures with brief descriptions may be shown and the students may be asked to respond to some relevant questions on the basis of their reading. 8. Skill of Organising Reading Games—The teacher can organize some reading games for the benefit of the learners. Sometimes the teacher may divide the students in groups and form teams namely A, B, C etc. Then some reading assignment may be given and each team may put in efforts. The teacher may hold different type of competitions and announce scores. He may provide some incentives in the form of words of appreciation, award of position, merit certificates on the basis of performance in reading of words, phrases, complete sentences and short paragraphs. The teacher may organize such reading games for opposite words, synonyms, forms of verbs, degrees of adjectives i.e. word building exercises.

2.1.2. Aims of Teaching Reading People generally feel that the ability to read fluently is the primary aim of learning English. Before 1900, the major aim in teaching reading was just word recognition. But in due course of time, the concept

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underwent a change. In the modern times, there have been many social changes and so the purposes of teaching reading have increased. So much so is the change that even the methods of teaching reading have been modified accordingly.At present reading is taught so that a person is able: (i) To change ideas and behaviour of the students. (ii) to understand the meanings of words. (iii) to react to what has been read. In other words, the child laughs, feels sad, waits for the ending etc. as the case may be. And he will disagree on false statement. (iv) to recognise words. Reading of mother tongue and reading of a foreign language are fundamentally the same processes. The learners face problems in both the cases. However, in case of mother tongue, the problems are few because he has already learnt listening and speaking at home. In case of a foreign language, practice in listening or speaking is given in the school. Comparatively, the learners have less practice in aural-oral aspect of the language. Besides, English is not a phonetic language. Its spelling system creates problems in reading. So, it is very essential that reading should be started after giving practice in listening and speaking. It is rightly observed by R.S. Trivedi that “The teaching of English, therefore, should provide for the cultivation of this vital skill, without which the personality of the pupil will be incomplete and the utility of learning English will be severely doubted. In fact, in Indian conditions, reading will acquire greater importance and professional usefulness, than mere speech, which will have comparatively a limited sphere of operation.”

2.1.3. Need of Developing Reading Skill No one can deny the ability and need of the reading skill. These are necessary for the mother tongue as well as for the other foreign and country languages. Many of the scholars having accepted the need of

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reading skill have said that the reading is a form of key to the lock of language teaching i.e. the foundation pillar of the comprehension of the meaning. The need for the development of the Skill of Reading is for the fulfillment of the following points:1. The student can also gain knowledge without the help of anybody through reading. R.S. Trivedi has said that through the medium of language teaching proficiency can be achieved in all the four skills. Otherwise, without this, the personality of the student is incomplete. In fact, learning reading is more necessary than oral expression from the business and practical point of view. 2. After getting education of reading we never realize loneliness in any situation because the books are the best friends of the man. 3. To enable the students that they emphasize on the words properly and are able to read with pause and speed. 4. They can have the capacity to accept the knowledge of meaning and sense. 5. To develop the proper reading posture and style of reading in the students. 6. To have knowledge of the written words and to comprehend the words formed from the letters. 7. To develop the ability to read any prose or poetry with clear pronunciation and right rise and fall. 8. To enable the students to accept the sense by reading with right articulation, pronunciation, enunciation and harmony. 9. To develop the attributes of pleasantness, force, piquant, etc. of speech among the students through reading. 10. To develop the habit of self-study in the students. 11. To enhance the vocabulary of the students through the medium of reading. 12. To become capable of reading the literature of various languages through the medium of reading.

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2.2. Importance of Development in the Reading Skill Reading is such a significant activity as through which the student comes to know more about the environment around him. He can have information easily on any of the topic of the world. The capability of the reading is dependent on the pace of reading and comprehending any of the topics. Aperson, only who is proficient in reading can utilize this written storehouse. Reading makes special contribution in the acceptance of thoughts, analysis and interpretation. In the modern era, the storehouse of knowledge is expanding rapidly. In the world, daily thousands of books and magazines are being published. We are getting much information through scientific technique, internet and Google; the proper advantage of which can be taken through the Skill of Reading— 1. Helpful in Knowledge Acquisition—The store house of knowledge is getting prosperous day by day. The storehouse of knowledge has expanded in all the four directions in the form of books, computers, network and Google. One can have only a glance of knowledge through the textbooks relating to the curriculum i.e. it can be said only the doors to knowledge open through them. As the man progresses in life, his sources of attaining knowledge also increase. Many books and magazines are available to him for reading written in regional and foreign languages for which the skill of reading is utmost necessary. In the era of 21st century in every field irrespective of business, literature, education - some latest information is available at every place. To have this information, we will have to read books. Thus, the skill of reading is a significant means to acquire knowledge. 2. Social Utility —‘Reading’ is quite useful from the social point of view. A man has to indulge in many types of conversations in his social activities and daily routine also which cannot be done without acquiring the sufficient ability in the skill of reading. Sometimes, the man has to recite after reading something. Sometimes he has to study research

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papers. Sometimes, someone’s message has also to be recited after reading. Even in the communication technology it is necessary to read on What’spp and Net; only then he comes to know what is being said. Due to the lack of reading ability in the social arena, the condition of the man is just similar to the fish without water. Social activities are just incomplete without reading. 3. Helpful in Entertainment—Man gets entertainment through newspapers and magazines, computer, net and special type of books. There is no requirement of adopting any valuable video-audio equipments at any particular place for this source of entertainment. Proficiency in reading is required for enjoying in this source of entertainment. Whether indoor or outdoor, in the loneliness, availability of a book and magazines and periodicals is only sufficient. But an illiterate person cannot take advantage of these sources of entertainment. In the race of hustle and bustle also, man has sometime for rest in which he shuns his mental fatigue after reading story, poetry, novel, or comedy material. Thus, the Skill of Reading is quite useful in man’s entertainment. 4. Democratic Utility— The modern era is of globalization and politics in which the significance of reading activity has increased more. Also for expressing independently, we express our thoughts after reading something first of all. Oral expression although being significant, yet it has limitations because none of the leaders can either deliver his speech at every place nor there is so much time with every person that he could listen to their thoughts. Therefore, their speeches that are published in newspapers and magazines, after reading them only, we become aware of their thoughts. But only that person can take advantage of that has practical knowledge of ‘Reading’. It is the necessary condition of the continuously alert democracy that they have knowledge of reading. Only then they play active role in the democratic state. 5. Educational Utility—Attainment of education is impossible without the development of the skill of reading. If we take up the

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language teaching, then to develop the oral expression is a significant aim of it. But without the regular exercise of recitation, the development of oral expression cannot take place. Besides this, to develop the power of thoughts among the students and to lead those students towards the literature and to develop constructive tendencies etc also are the significant aims of language teaching. Compulsion of reading is also in the acquisition of knowledge of other subjects. The teacher of every subject has to study for the preparation of his teaching subject. The students acquire knowledge after reading the book of every subject and prepare for the examinations. Hence, the reading is compulsory even in the scope of teaching. 6. Helpful in Critical Appraisal —A man should adopt critical nature. But he will be able to criticize any composition only when he will be proficient in the ‘Reading’activity. He must adopt the critical nature in order to maintain his mental and intellectual development. This nature is the most useful from the social, economic, religious and political development. But interest in study is required for this. Study is the developed form of reading. Reading only is called study when passes through the recitation and ‘Silent’ stages. Critical nature also exposes the nature of research in the curriculum of language. Hence, in the increasing preoccupations of life and for the solution in the problems, it is utmost necessary to be proficient in reading. To develop the skill of reading, the significant role the teaching of delivering speech/oral expression can play, that much role cannot be played by the teaching of any other subject. At primary level, by beginning from the recitation one should advance towards silent reading and study and they should be made so much capable as to take full advantage of reading in every field of life. From the above interpretation, it is clear that for successful living, knowledge of reading is necessary. With the living becoming more complex, more need of ‘reading’ is increasing.

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2.3. Types of Reading Skill Reading is meant for comprehension which means understanding the meaning of (a) words and (b) relationship between ideas. According to ‘Jesperson’ “The main point is for the pupils to be occupied with the text repeatedly in such a way that they do not lose sight of the meaning, so that they may thus become so familiar with it at last that they know it almost or entirely by heart without having been directly required to commit it to memory. But it has been found that our pupils seldom read with comprehension. They just, as ‘P. B. Bollard’says, ‘bark at print’. The teacher is expected here to act as a guide. According to ‘F. G. French’ “The teacher acts as a guide showing his class how to uncover all that there is in the subject-matter, all that there is in the words chosen by the author and all that is to be examined in the constructions, patterns and planned paragraphs in which the material is presented.” For doing this job efficiently, the teacher must be aware of the types of reading which lead to comprehension. There are mainly six types of reading : (1) Loud reading (4) Extensive reading (2) Silent reading (5) Supplimentary reading and (3) Intensive reading (6) Study Skill including using thesaures, Dictionary encyclopedia

2.3.1. Loud Reading This is known as oral reading. There is always a good deal of reading aloud carried on when teaching English. But the fact is that much of what goes under the name of reading aloud is what Ballard calls ‘barking at print’, W.M. Ryburn very rightly remarks ; “There is very little real reading done in English, Part of difficulty is that English is a foreign language, but the chief difficulty is found in the fact that pupils are not taught to read aloud properly in their mother-tongue.”

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At least for the first two months no book should be introduced and consequently no oral reading should be done. During these months sufficient practice in roal work should be given. Only when the pupils have learnt enough what they have to read in book, oral reading should be introduced. Moreover, the habit of fluency must have been developed hi them. a. Characteristics of Loud Reading Loud reading should have the following characteristics: (i) Proper Gestures and Expressions—The reader should exhibit the proper gestures and expressions like the emotions of anger, emotions of zeal, emotions of bravery, etc. (ii) Proper Reading Posture—During the loud reading, reading should be done by sitting or standing in the right posture. While reading amid the listeners, the reader should look towards them off and on. (iii) Productivity Impact—The reader should make comprehensive his vision horizon for bringing impact in the reading. His vision should not remain focused only on the book. The reading done with gushing speed is effective. (iv) Conduct of Organs—While reading, the reader should also conduct his body organs in a natural manner like hands, feet, eyes, etc. It brings liveliness in the reading. (v) Spontaneity—Loud reading should be done only in a natural tone and naturally and artificialness should not be brought into the same. (vi) Pure Pronunciation—There should be pure/accurate pronunciation of alphabet and words in the loud reading. The pronunciation of each and every alphabet of the words should start from the right place. There becomes the perversion of meaning with a little impurity in the pronunciation like ª˝„U (Planet) ; ªÎ„U (Home) ; Sfl¡Ÿ (Kins) ; ‡Êfl¡Ÿ (People along the funeral), etc.

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(vii) Proper Outlet of Sound—The organs of the mouth which are active in the outlet of sound, those should be used rightly and properly. The sound should be pronounced properly from the throat, palate, pinnacle, etc pronunciation places. (viii) Proper Emphasis & Pause—The use of force on the words should be according to the emotions and thoughts i.e. Stop; Don’t let go. Where to keep it low, where to keep it high - use of punctuation marks indicators of the same should be done. (ix) Proper Rhythm & Pace—Reading should be done keeping into consideration the proper rhythm, pace and flow according to the emotions of the textual material. (x) Sweetness in Tone—While doing loud reading, there should be sweetness in the speech. Each and every word should be clearly audible. b. Importance of Loud Reading The following significance of the loud reading is especially worth mentioning:1. Commercial Importance—Those interested to work in drama, film, television and radio get entered into these professions only when they have proficiency in the loud reading and the very step towards this proficiency is taken during the education of reading. 2. Helpful in Personality Development—Self-confidence comes through loud reading; hesitation, bashfulness, fear etc resistible tendencies go away. The reader does loud reading through it with the self-confidence. 3. Helpful in the Awakening of Interest towards Reading— The children feel the enjoyment through the loud reading and slowly and slowly this appears being to them. They become perfect in delivering speech and also in undertaking the responsibility of the post of the speaker. 4. Helpful in Oral Expression—Loud reading is the first aspect of oral expression. The child learns through it reading with the pure

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pronunciation, proper pace, pause and rise and fall. All the attributes of oral expression-purity, sweetness, powerfulness, decency, compatible with the opportunity, compatible with the emotions, etc are inherent in the purity of the loud reading. 5. Recreational Importance—The enjoyment that is realized in the loud reading of the various styles of literature that much is not realized in the silent reading. Some people entertain the audience in the loud reading by telling humour and satire. c. Advantages of Loud Reading The following are the advantages of loud reading. 1. It trains these sensory organs – eyes, ears and mouth – because, in loud reading, they work in coordination. 2. It makes students learn by imitation which is a natural method of learning for students. 3. Students learn the proper method of reading, because they follow the model reading done by the teacher. 4. This develops the skill of speech and giving lectures. 5. The mistakes related to pronunciation can be corrected. d. Limitations of Loud Reading It has the following disadvantages. 1. In later life, it is silent reading which is preferred. If a student becomes habitual to loud reading, he can not become an extensive reader. 2. In public places like library and reading-room only silent reading is allowed. 3. It has been found that students of the class pay no heed to what the other student is reading aloud. 4. Only a few students are benefitted by loud reading. 5. E. W. Manzel thinks that loud reading is not a source of pleasure. 6. It does not help in penetrating the meaning. A. W. Frisby says, “The danger of too much reading aloud – is that it may lead to the short circuiting of the meaning, whereby the written word

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does not convey meaning but becomes merely a symbol for the collection of sounds and is translated straight in sound.” Due to all these limitations, many scholars like P. Gurrey have not recommended loud reading. But the advantages of loud reading are more strong. So, we cannot dispense with loud reading.

2.3.2. Silent Reading It is regarded as the most important type of reading. Mehta points out, “We all read faster than we speak and children must be initiated into the silent reading habit as early as possible. Silent reading follows loud reading.” Morrison says, “Loud reading by students should be followed by silent reading.” Silent reading is something, without producing sound audible to others. In this type of reading, students read without making sound and moving lips, so that they may not disturb. No whispering or murmuring is allowed to the students. This type of reading is useful at the advanced level of learning of language. A.W. says, “While reading aloud has its uses few pupils will have need of it when they leave school.” Handerson says, “Silent reading inculcates love for reading and is pleasurable and it gives the pupils a feeling of power and achievements.” Silent reading has both an end and means. Silent reading develops the ability to read with interest. Silent reading indicates self-education and deep study.

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In this, reading is done silently by the students. It should be encouraged as soon as children have acquired a certain amount of fluency in reading aloud. “We all read faster than we speak and children must be initiated into the silent reading habit as early as possible.” —Mehta “Loud reading by students should be followed by silent reading.” —Morrison “The aim of silent reading are pleasure and profit ; to read for interest and to get information.” —Ryburn Aims of Silent Reading: Practice and supervision are more required in the silent reading rather than teaching. Without the apparent knowledge of the aims of silent reading neither he would be able to develop the tendency of silent reading in the students and nor would he able to make his teaching productive. The knowledge of aims of silent reading is necessary for a successful language teacher. The following are the aims of silent reading: 1. It is the aim of silent reading to bring sweetness, vigour and sovouriness in the speech. 2. This reading also teaches the assimilation of sense of the part read. 3. Reading should be entertaining. With this the comprehension becomes easy. 4. Posture also becomes accurate with this reading. In the reading, the posture of the student immersed in reading goes on changing according to the textual material. 5. To enable the students so much so that they are able to assimilate maximum textual material in minimum time. 6. The students are made capable to comprehend the inherent sense, meaning, etc in the textual material through it.

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7. Another aim of silent reading is also to develop original contemplation and logical power in the students. 8. The students are made habitual in reading with rapid speed. 9. Right ordination is available to the letter, pronunciation, sound, force, outlet, recitation, etc through this reading. 10. The student comprehends the use of full-stop, comma, etc symbols through the means of this reading. 11. The students are made capable of reading their own textual material without creating obstacle in the study of the other students. 12. To develop the nature of self-study is also a major aim of silent reading. 13. The students are made capable of studying with concentration their own textual material or subject-matter. a. Characteristics/Silent Reading—In order to enter into the comprehensive world of reading, the very first step is taken in the form of ‘Loud Reading’. But the need of the loud reading arises in life only when it is to be read out to someone. Sometimes, to study by speaking becomes an indicator of rudeness and creates the environment of noise in the class. Due to this very reason, the students were moved towards the silent reading from loud reading. Mainly these are the characteristics i.e. the attributes:1. Helpful in Proper Utilization of Time—In order to utilize the vacation time and to boost knowledge and for entertainment, many times a person has to study in the presence of others also. In such a situation, it is only possible through the ‘Silent Reading’. Reading the book in Loud Reading one makes oneself comical. Therefore, the skill of silent reading should have been developed sufficiently. 2. Austerity—Time and hard work both are saved in the silent reading. The reader reads more books in less time and gains more knowledge.

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Stating this method as the best method, Brien, AO said, “Silent reading is understandably more economical besides being the methods adapted to the ordinary activities of life since the vast majority of your reading is silent.” 3. Helpful in Summarization—Silent reading makes the child capable that whatever he reads, he must grasp the gist of the same. In this manner, he becomes proficient in the art of analysis as well as synthesis and also the art of summarization and whatever he reads he comprehends the gist of the same. 4. Conducive to Self-Study—Silent reading motivates for selfreading i.e. it develops the tendency of reading in a person.After doing the loud reading of some paragraph in the class, the student does silent reading of the same and memorizes the same after comprehending the meaning. 5. Development of Concentration—Through the practice of silent reading the children inculcate the habit of self-reading with concentration. To read for some time with concentration is more important. In it, the child memorizes by reading more textual material in less time or comprehends the same. 6. Less Labour and Less Fatigue—Less labour is required to be done in the silent reading as compared that loud reading and less fatigue is felt. Because in the loud reading the organs of pronunciation of the mouth, eyes and brain has to do much hard work whereas in the silent reading only eyes and brain remain active. Vision break being longer, silent reading can be done for more time. 7. Rapidity in the Pace of Comprehending—If the study of magazines and periodicals and books, etc. is done by remaining silent; only then rapidity would come in the pace of reading and comprehending. Obstacle arises in the business of others by our reading through loud speech. Therefore, silent reading is only beneficial because in it the student while reading with the fast speed comprehends with ease.

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8. Use of Pondering Power—With the regular practice of silent reading while reading, the use of pondering power and to grasp the gist takes place. The student becomes perfect in analysis of thought and in the art of synthesis and arrives at a conclusion by developing decision power. 9. Increase in Pace—The pace of reading increases rapidly through silent reading. With the continuous practices, vision break becomes lengthier and the vision starts identifying more and more words at a glance. Dr Puri has written in his book “Teaching of Reading and Writing’’that a person in a fixed period can read double the words through silent reading as compared with the loud reading. In the first and the second class - pace of the silent reading and the loud reading remains the same but in the third and the fourth class -the pace of the silent reading increases. b. Merits of Silent Reading : 1. In the silent reading, the child tries to read by comprehending on his own. 2. The nature of independency and self-confidence is generated in the child through silent reading and with that he boosts his capacities of self-reading, thinking and pondering. 3. Thought-oriented topics are read in a well-manner through the silent reading. 4. In the silent reading, the force is there only on the brain and eyes; the other sense organs work peacefully. 5. Much more can be read in the silent reading as compared with the loud reading. The child inculcates the habit of reading more in less time. c. Demerits : 1. The ability of conversation cannot be developed. 2. Not each and everyone can be beneficial from it due to the individual diversity.

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3. There is no removal of the defects relating to pronunciation through silent reading.

2.3.3. Intensive Reading Intensive reading means detailed study of the passage. In this type of reading, the reader has to be careful with the different language items, i.e. words, grammar, language, expression, ideas etc. He tries to understand anything and everything contained in the paragraph. Intensive reading can be more interesting by encouraging the students to ask questions to their classmates on the passage read by them. This will encourage each student to search out questions from the passage. “He should test what the pupils have gained from what they have read by questions on the subject matter. Another good way of testing is to get pupils to give the substance of paragraph they have read.” –Ryburn (b) Procedure : Step I. —Includes introduction by using three things to introduce the intensive reading. (i) Explains the social and cultural background of the lesson. (ii) Asks introductory questions based on previous – knowledge. (iii) Asks some revision questions. Step II.— Model reading by the teacher. The teacher reads the passage with correct pronunciation, stress, intonation, rhythm, juncture and pause. “For a considerable part of a course, it is strongly advisable for the teacher to give a model reading of the fresh text, exploiting its dramatic possibilities.” —Prof. Morris Step III.— Loud reading by the students. Step IV.—Explanation : The teacher should explain new words,

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phrases, sentence-pattern, points of functional grammar through many devices. (i) Using prefix (ii) Using suffix (iii) Associating the word with objects, pictures, models, sketches, games and actions. (iv) Using grouped under a head (v) Giving antonyms (vi) Giving synonyms (vii) Giving special reference to the context of the subject-matter of the lesson. (viii) Giving mother-tongue equivalents (ix) Using words in a sentence (x) Explaining sentences and patterns (xi) Explaining grammatical points For example, the teacher may ask the meaning of ‘House’. The proper answer may be given by him saying that the house means the place where father, mother, brother and sister all live together.

2.3.4. Extensive Reading Extensive reading is called rapid reading or independent silent reading. Extensive reading means to read silently and quickly with understanding without the help of a teacher. In extensive reading the aim is not linguistic. Here the reader is concerned with getting the overall meaning or idea of the passage. He is not to bother about the detailed language items contained in the paragraph. The purpose of extensive reading will be to train the student to read directly and fluently in the foreign language for his own enjoyment without the aid of the teacher. Let us discuss the three types of reading in detail.Extensive reading is called rapid reading or independent silent reading.

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(a) Aims and Objectives of Extensive Reading : (i) Increasing vocabulary. (ii) Laying stress on subject matter of the language. (iii) To develop the pleasure and profit of reading and getting information. (iv) Understanding the meaning of the passage. (v) To develop reading habit. (b) Books for Extensive Reading : (i) Difficult words and sentence pattern should be avoided. (ii) Language material should be acc. to the mental level of students. (iii) Subject matter should be related to the social and cultural background of a country. (iv) They should be nicely printed, illustrated, threaded, binded and priced. (v) They should be simple. (vi) Subject-matter should be easy. (vii) They should contain simple stories, plays, biographies, social, cultural and scientific topic. (c) Procedure for Extensive Reading : The procedure for Extensive Reading should be flexible and should change according to the situations and the nature of the content-matter of the subjects. Step I : Introduction by the teacher. Step II : Silent reading by the students. Step III : Comprehension questions asked by teacher. Step IV : Discussion and summarisation. Step I. Introduction by the teacher—The English teacher gives some main information and guidelines for extensive reading. He may also explain the difficult portion of language materials of the lesson. Step II. Silent reading by the students—The students will read the passage but quickly.

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Step III. Comprehension Questions—The English teacher will ask the comprehension questions to test the understanding of the passage. (d) Advantages of Extensive Reading : (i) To increase vocabulary. (ii) Useful for library reading. (iii) It is useful for self-reading and self-study. (iv) To assimilate the ideas given in the passage. (v) To keep the students busy in the class. Limitations : In extensive reading, the aim is not linguistic. Here the reader is concerned with getting the overall meaning or idea of the passage. He is not to bother about the detailed language items contained in the paragraph. W.M. River says in his book ‘Teaching Foreign Language Skills’, “The purpose of extensive programme will be to train the student to read directly and fluently in the foreign language for his own enjoyment, without the aid of the teacher.” Generally in the lower classes, books are prescribed for intensive reading. But in the higher classes, extensive reading on the part of the students is as important as is intensive reading. In intensive reading, the student cannot ignore the meaning of any word. He has to follow each word or structure contained in the paragraph. But in extensive reading, he can skip over a line or a word or a structure which he fails to follow. The prescribed books in different classes are meant for intensive reading. Read and Learn Series is a set of books prescribed for the first three years of learning English. The students here cannot ignore anything. Similarly in secondary class, ‘Poems for the Young’ is a prescribed textbook for intensive reading. The students can be asked to write context and explanation in the examination. Even a critical question can be put on anything contained in the lesson.

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In extensive reading, one is concerned with the overall meanings contained in the” book or chapter. Let us take up a single example. Intensive Reading of a newspaper, say ‘The Tribune’. That has to be done extensively, otherwise one will lag far behind. Thus extensive reading breaks the dull and monotonous reading of the textbook. Moreover, the reader is not required to strain much in extensive reading. Unfortunately, in India, too much emphasis is not given to extensive reading. There is lack of extensive readers too. Proper attention must be paid towards these facts and a judicious place should be given to extensive reading in reading lesson planning. Difference between Intensive Reading and Extensive Reading Intensive Reading 1. The pupils should be able to understand and use all the common words, phrases and expression in the book. 2. Reading is aloud and controlled by the teacher. 3. The help of the teacher is maximum. 4. The detailed reading lesson is essentially place for careful teaching. 5. Concentrates upon the language. 6. Its aim is to make a careful and minute security of what is read. 7. Words, phrases and expressions are studied in detail. 8. New words and phrases pass into pupil’s active vocabulary. Extensive Reading 1. These are not studied in detail. 2. These pass into the pupil’s passive vocabulary. 3. They should be able to understand not use all the words, phrases and expression in the book. 4. As non-detailed lesson is minimum and reading is silent and independent.

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5. The non-detailed lesson is minimum. 6. The non-detailed lesson is essentially a place for no teaching or minimum of teaching. 7. Concentrates upon subject-matter. 8. Its aim is only to grasp the meaning of what is read.

2.3.5. Supplementary Reading Supplementary reading bears a very close resemblance of extensive reading. In supplementary reading, extensive reading is the most important thing. The function of supplementary reading is to supplement the work of intensive reading. Thus, supplementary reading is subsidiary to the intensive reading of a detailed prose lesson. In middle and high stages supplementary readers are recommended along with the prose-text. The number of such readers is generally one to three. The method of teaching the supplementary readers is the same as that of rapid readers.

2.3.6. Study skills including using the Thesauras, Dictionary Encyclopedia 2.3.6.1. Use of Thesauras A thesaurus contains synonyms for commonly used words. A synonym is a word that has the same meaning or nearly the same meaning as another word. For example, “simple” is a synonym for “easy.” A thesaurus contains many more synonyms for a word than does a dictionary. A thesaurus can help you precisely express your ideas when writing. A thesaurus is the opposite of a dictionary. It is needed by the student when he/she has the meaning in mind but the exact word is escaping. One is in a fix to have the word. One has many other words which are not appropriate. Thus, a thesaurus comes to assist the student.

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Surely, keeping the thesaurus at the desk of the learner will help him in every situational need. This is also a step towards self-learning by the student. Why should the student always remain on the look out for the teacher’s personal help or guidance? The teacher should, in fact, play such a role during teaching that he should equip the learners with this type of self-learning habits. That way then, the student makes progress and marches ahead fully inspired and self motivated. This is the sure way to help the student learn English well. 1. It is English poetry which makes the whole syllabus lovable and attractive. It also adds to variety in English course. 2. For students who have to memorise a good deal of language material, poetry makes their work easier and simpler to a good extent. The reason is that poems can be memorised easily and quickly as compared to prose. 3. Another important reason for teaching poetry is that it shows the rhythm of English more clearly than regular prose. Stress patterns are regularly repeated. Thus, the students can really begin to see the importance of stress and rhythm in English. 4. Pattern practice is also possible with the help of poetry. In poetry very often we find that there is repetition of certain patterns or sentences. The readers get a chance of going over them time and again. Thus, due to their repetition the patterns get registered in their minds. 5. Roget’s Pocket Thesaurus edited by C.O. Sylvester Mawson assisted by Katharine Aldrich Whiting is recommended for the young learners. This is based on Roget’s International Thesaurus. 6. By studying poems, students can develop their power of imagination. They also feel aesthetic satisfaction. 7. In the whole of language work, we find that poetry attracts the students the most. It gladdens their hearts and they feel all the

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more attracted towards it. They feel the pleasure and appreciate the reality behind the poem.

2.3.6.2. Use of Dictionaries A dictionary provides information about the meaning, pronunciation, and spelling of words. Unabridged dictionaries attempt to be complete by including all words currently in use in a language. They provide extensive information about the words included. Abridged dictionaries omit words that do not regularly appear in books, magazines, and newspapers. Specialized dictionaries provide detailed information about the words that apply to a particular subject such as space, math, biology, psychology, and many more. They include technical words that are rarely used outside of the subject. Teaching-learning of a language needs a lot of improvement. The way it is conducted in the classroom is not good. The teacher teaches the language and then the students learn it. When the teacher does not teach, the students do not learn. They don’t try even to learn at their own. There is a sort of spoon feeding of the learners. This is a wrong habit of learning. This must be checked. The teacher should inculcate among the students the right type of attitudes and help them have good habits of learning. Self-learning is the best habit. The teacher should help the learners learn in that way. In the learning of a foreign language, the student is often confronted with the problem of understanding. The student reads some material and is unable to understand it. On scrutinizing further, the learner feels that if the meaning of some words were known to him, he could understand the subject matter well. Meanings of difficult words can be known by consulting the dictionary. Dictionary is a never failing friend of the learner. It helps the learner in solving the problems of meanings. A good dictionary also teaches him many other things such as noun,

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verb, adverb—its forms, conjugation etc. Even for teaching stress, correct pronunciation, dictionary helps. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English It is adapted by H. W. Fowler and FG. Fowler from the Oxford Dictionary. The first few pages give a lot of information to the learners. Abbreviations used in the dictionary are given. The students should learn how to locate a word in the dictionary. Every word in the dictionary is arranged alphabetically. Out of a number of meanings given, the student can gradually find out the exact meaning that is needed by him. It would be better if the student spends some time for reading 2 or 3 or 4 lines given by way of meanings, grammatical aspects etc. That will improve his knowledge of language. Thus consulting dictionary helps the learner in a number of ways. Let us now see what are the advantages of consulting a dictionary. Advantages of Consulting a Dictionary : 1. Knowledge of stress is acquired by the learner. 2. It expands vocabulary of the students. 3. It helps in the improvement of pronunciation. 4. And above all, it gives a lot of confidence to the student and he becomes self-reliant. 5. A student becomes a better learner of the language. 6. The learner becomes good in spellings. 7. It improves the knowledge of grammar. 8. It creates good habit of self-learning. Precautions while Consulting a Dictionary 1. Dictionary for mother tongue meanings may be used whenever need is felt. 2. In the beginning, the chief purpose for which it is being consulted should be kept in mind. Suppose spellings are to be seen, only spellings should be checked. If meanings are to be seen, one

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meaning of the word may be taken up at a time. And if time is available, everything concerning the word may be studied from the dictionary. 3. Dictionary should be easily available. It should remain at the study desk of the learner. 4. Only a good dictionary should be used. 5. For learning English, English to English Dictionary should be used.

2.3.6.3. Encyclopedia  An encyclopedia contains articles on a variety of subjects. The articles are written by experts on each of the subjects. In addition to articles, encyclopedias may include illustrations and diagrams, definitions of some words, and references to additional information. A general encyclopedia includes overview articles on a wide range of topics. A subject encyclopedia contains longer and more detailed articles on specific topics, events, or fields of study.

2.4. Developing the Reading Habits of the Students These days, we find that the students are not in the habit of studying extra books. They study only those books which are prescribed for them. If the students continue like this, then the real aims of teaching the language will be missed. It is the duty of all concerned that they should make efforts to improve the deteriorating conditions. The examination system should also be changed. The question paper and the syllabus expect the study of some other books. For extra reading, Prof. Rqjagopalan says, “We should concentrate all our attention on the pupils now in schools and make them more and more book-minded. We should create in them a real love for books and not only a good taste for reading.” The following steps in this direction are suggested:

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(i) In the examination, there should be some questions for which the students may be required to make use of the subject matter acquired through extra reading. (ii) During the school hours, one period should be prescribed for library studies. It will be all the better if open-shelf system is introduced in the library. (iii) In order to draw the attention of the students and make them feel interested, some books of common interest may be placed in the canteen. The students in their free time will be able to have a look at them. (iv) Sometimes there may be discussion on books and the students who show extra knowledge of books should be given either special certificates or special credit for that. (v) The library should have suitable type of books for all the students. There should be banks for the children, the grown-ups, the teachers, the geniuses, the dullards etc. (vi) The library and the reading room should be well decorated. It will attract the readers. (vii) The newly arrived books in the library should be notified on the notice board. If possible, the covers of those books should be exhibited on a special board meant for this purpose. (viii) A library association of the students may be formed. The students may be involved for doing social service in the library. The students will come to know about the various books lying in the library. Thus they will be attracted towards reading some of them. (ix) The class teacher or the subject teacher himself should be interested in reading extra books from the library. The example of the teacher will have its effect on the students. They will also become interested in library books.

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(x) The teacher should announce in the class the names of the students who are doing extra reading. It will give recognition to those students. Moreover, it will attract the attention of the students to the library. (xi) The teacher should explain to the students the utility of library reading. They should be given knowledge about different types of books lying in the library. (xii) As far as possible, the books should be easily accessible to the students. For this a small library in the classroom may be started. Open shelf system may be introduced if possible. (xiii) Sometimes the teacher may tell a part of the story contained in some book. As soon as the students feel interested in it the teacher may say that they should read the rest of the story from the book lying in the library. In such cases, it is expected that the library will have number of copies of that book. (xiv) There should be competitions for extra reading. Thus the winners may be given prizes.

EXERCISE ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS 1. Write the various teaching skills to development reading in Students. 2. Discuss the need of developing reading skills. 3. Describe the aims of teaching reading. 4. What is the importance of developing reading skills ? 5. What is the different types of Reading ? Explain in detail. 6. Describe the characteristics of loud reading. 7. Discuss the aims of silent reading. 8. How we can develop reading habits in students ?

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SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What do you mean by skill of asking questions ? Write a short note on loud reading. What do you mean by silent reading ? Write its merits in brief. What is intensive reading ? Write a short note on dictionary.

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3.1. Concept Developing of Writing Skill Writing is the physical expression of what you think. The close relationship between writing and thinking makes writing valuable. Thus, writing is closely related to the inner processes within a child’s mind, i.e., the internal manipulation of external experiences. In addition to this, writing reinforces the grammatical structures, idiom and vocabulary that we have been teaching our children, writing skill makes thee language items learnt firmly fixed in the minds of the learners. According to Bacon, “Reading makes a full man, conference a ready man and writing an exact man.” What he means is that writing is a useful means of organising thought and giving it precision; According to Harold Rosen, “The writer is a lonely figure... He writes with one hand tied behind his back, being robbed of gestures. He is robbed too of the tone of his voice. He is condemned to monologue, there is no one to help out, to fill the silences, put words in his mouth or make encouraging noises.” In the words of Bell, “Writing is a tool used to enable us to express what is in our mind and for some people is almost as important as speech.” Mahatma Gandhi has also emphasised the importance of writing by saying, “Fair and legible hand writing is a tool used to enable us to express, what is in our mind and for some people is almost as important as speech.” S.S.M. Gaudar says, “Writing has an instrumental value in schools.” He further says, “It is a means of preserving the knowledge 91

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which the pupil has gained or the judgement he has formed. It serves as a check on his forgetting useful items of knowledge and ideas. The habit of making notes of what is read and of summarising helps the recollection of what has been studied.’’ 1. Mechanics of Writing It includes the following: 1. Make letters of the right shape and size. 2. Controlling the small muscles of the fingers and wrist to have fluent movement in writing. 3. Giving proper spacing between letters, words and lines. 4. Using capital letters and other punctuation marks. Teaching writing mechanics has three stages as follows: (i) Learning to write. (ii) Preparation for writing. (iii) Mastering a mature style of handwriting. 2. Aspects of Writing Skill : 1. Syntax (sentence structure and choices, etc.) 2. Content (Relevance, clarity, originality, logic, etc.) 3. Mechanics (Handwriting, spellings, punctuation, etc.) 4. Audience (The readers) 5. Organisation 6. The writing process (Getting ideas, getting started, writing drafts, revising) 7. Purpose (The reason for writing) 8. Grammar (Rules for verbs, agreement, articles, adjectives etc.) 9. Word choice (vocabulary, idioms, tone) Writing is a skill in which we produce a sequence of sentences arranged in a particular order and linked together in certain ways. Writing is one of those communication skills. It is through writing that a person is able to convey his thoughts or ideas to others who are not present there. Moreover, writing makes the record permanent. Whatever is written once remains for ever unless it is knowingly

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destroyed. While writing, a person has to be very exact. Bacon has rightly said, “Reading makes a full man, conference a ready man and writing an exact man.” In some of the institutions, it is found that too much emphasis is laid on writing skills and oral aspect of the language is neglected. No doubt, this type of practice helps the learners in the present day type of examinations but it does not help them in the long run. So the different aspects of language learning should be given due importance. Teachinghowtowriteinvolvesmanualskill—theskillofcontrolling the small muscles of the fingers, and the wrist and securing coordination of the hand and the eye. Secondly, it involves doing various exercises in written work. The exercises cover a vast field ranging from copying the phrases and sentences to composing a long essay. There are two types of learners who can be taught writing of English language. The first category is of those who have not learnt the writing of any language. The second category is of those who have already learnt the writing of mother tongue. In the first case, the teacher has to explain to the learners how they have to sit, how to hold a notebook in the hand and how to hold a pen. After this, they are given preliminary practice of writing with a pen. Then they are given this type of practice with the help of pieces of chalk and small boards which are meant for the students. There are black boards fixed up on the four walls of the class room which are very near to the floor on which the students are sitting. By using two type of black boards, the students may be given practice of drawing straight lines. In the beginning, the lines may not be straight. By and by, they should be given practice in drawing short lines, in one direction and then in another direction.

3.2. Need and Importance for the Development of Writing Skill Generally writing is the most important source of self-expression. Otherwise also, man has to record many thoughts in his domestic and

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social life; therefore writing has not merely remained as an art but it has become an essential source of self-expression. ‘Writing’is that source which provides embodiment to the thoughts of the students and can make those thoughts as immortal. Therefore, there is need also of the pure writing along with the pure pronunciation. Although nowadays some sound instruments like sound recorder, tape recorder etc have been invented, yet there is special requirement of the written form of the language. As a result of the writing skill, the literature of various languages of the world is safe with us. In every field of life, writing skill is utmost necessary. Providing some information to someone by writing letter, to apply for a job, Government programs, and for the business world, etc and also in the various departments writing skill is extremely necessary. Dr. Raman Behari has only rightly said in the context of writing skill that expressing our emotions and thoughts in the language style compatible to the context and in the logical form through artistic method is called expression. But when we express those very emotions and thoughts after recording the same, then that is called writing. 1. Helpful in the Democratic Development—Nowadays we are living in a, democratic system. The freedom of expression is the biggest contribution of this era. But one cannot remain dependent only on the verbal form. After studying the thoughts of various scholars, he has to write his own thoughts also on the same. This freedom can only then be advantageous when the man is also proficient in the written skill along with the oral expression. 2. Basis of the Literary Composition—Skill of writing is the base of the composition of literature of each language. Without the writing skill, the students also cannot be motivated for the literary composition. Only a student who is efficient in skill of writing can become a good author. 3. Helpful in making the memory power permanent—The memory power of man is limited. He cannot memorize every fact.

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Therefore, he has to write some points so that whenever required, he could remember by reading those points. 4. Helpful in preservation of Knowledge and Science—We are reaching to the dizzy heights of science daily. Behind all that, the miracle of skill of writing is working. If there would have been no skill of writing, then the store of knowledge would not have been preserved and the inventions of science would have remained only at the thoughtful level; their practical use could not be done. Continuation of the development of knowledge and science goes ‘ on from one generation to another. The people of a generation make some inventions and the coming generation increases that development. It began since the discovery of the script and the skill of writing got a boost. 5. Useful in the practical life—The need of the written language arises at every step in the daily life of every person. In maintaining the accounts of his home, for the identification of various objects, in writing their name, in the correspondence, support has to be taken only of the written language. 6. As a means to contact—Human life is getting developed continuously. Its spread is so much so that merely the verbal form of language cannot contain it in its lap.Written language has been considered as the best source in the establishment of contacts with the various offices, persons located far away, and for formal tasks and also for the exchange of information. 7. An essential aspect of acquisition of education— Textbooks of various levels are required for receiving education and for teaching subjects of various subjects. Notes are to be made from those textbooks, the text material has to be expanded and summarization of the read material has to be done - for all these the competence of the writing skill is extremely necessary. 8. Useful in the evaluation of psychological and intellectual development—‘Examination’ is the base of evaluation of the modern

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educational system. Without examination, the evaluation of the psychological and intellectual develop of the students is not possible. It is only through examination that evaluation is done of the education, teaching and the achievements of the students. The students have to answer the questions in the written form in which the pure language and beautiful writing is compulsory and for that the development of the writing skill is mandatory. 9. Commercial Significance—Exchange in the various businesses is done only in the written language. Records, decisions, policies, rules, etc. of several offices are kept in the written form. The person who is not able to use the written language in a well-manner, he cannot make the special progress in his business. 10. Preservation of cultural heritage—We have got a lot of literature in the form of written language in the form of heritage of our ancestors. We also have to deliver the innovative achievements of our civilization and culture to the people of coming generation in the written language which would be possible only on being proficient in the written language. The above mentioned facts prove the significance of the teaching of script/writing skill. Man’s language education does not get completed without attaining the knowledge of the skill of writing. Teaching of language is meaningful only when he is able to express his thoughts after listening, reading, comprehending, speaking and writing the language.

3.3. Objectives of the Development of Skill of Writing After keeping into consideration the above mentioned need and utility of the skill of writing, the following objectives of its development can be laid down :1. To teach the students the use of maxims, idioms and proverbs compatible to the context and need. 2. To teach them the use of style of topic friendly language.

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3. To enable the students for presenting their experiences and thoughts logically in the written form. 4. To awaken their interest towards the literature. 5. To teach the students to divide the context material in the written form in the paragraphs. 6. To develop the habit of clear, beautiful and shapely writing. 7. To develop among them the habit to write carefully. 8. To assign to the children the practice of writing the correct and accurate formation of the letters. 9. To impart education to them of spellings. 10. To teach them how to write beautifully and shapely? 11. To impart them the knowledge of the rules of composition of the sentences. 12. To inform the students clearly, correctly and accurately of the punctuation marks. 13. By developing the creative powers of the students through it, they can be moved forward towards the creation of literature. A linguist should plan the teaching work of the skill of writing keeping into the forefront the objectives of the development of the skill of writing. At the primary level, after the children have comprehended the letters, they should be taught to write through various sources. This endeavour goes on till the higher classes. The requirement is that the teacher moves forward the teaching of writing in a well-planned form according to the intellectual, psychological and physical needs of the students.

3.4. Qualities of the Skill of Writing The art of bring efficiency in writing is purposeful. It has the following qualities— 1. Fluency of the emotions—The proficiency of the art of writing is in the fact that whatever is written that should have dominance of the

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emotions and fluency because the emotions are the life energy of the language. The article becomes lifeless due the lack of strong emotions; he does not have the capability to encourage someone or comprehending the real facts and the article is not touching. 2. Pure Writing —Whichever article is written, that should contain all the words in grammatically correct form. Whenever any word is written incorrectly, then attempt should be made to write the same correctly ten times approximately. It is necessary to keep into consideration the order of the subject, object, verb, etc. Special attention should be accorded to the number, gender and the person (First person, Second Person and the Third Person). Often the independent sentences should not be started with ‘But’, ‘Rather’, ‘Therefore,’etc except for any special opportunity. The sentences should be little and small. 3. Good Handwriting—Good handwriting or calligraphy has much importance in the daily practice and mainly in the examinations. Just by looking at the answer sheet of the examination, adverse or favourable emotions generate in the heart of the examiner towards the examinee. Good handwriting is made by practice. Some of the facts worth considering for making the handwriting good are like this: 1. Do not write in haste. 2. Write each word completely and must put the headline over the same. 3. If the writing is very bad, then write with wooden pen or on the calligraphy book in a very slowly way. Practice daily. 4. Tilting of the letters should be alike while writing. 5. One should know the real form of each letter. 6. Never write on the rough paper and in the dull ink. 4. Beautification of Words and Meanings—The beautification of words and meanings is made by using the decking in the article. Interestingness comes in the article merely with the use of embellishment irrespective of the fact whether the decking is word decking or the

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meaning decking like with the use of ‘Ram even outdoes the iron plate’ rather than writing .’The colour of Ram is black’ miracle comes in the writing of the sentence. ‘You have become the Id moon’, ‘Whenever he speaks; flowers fallout from his mouth’ etc. sentences have the depth of meaning inherent in them. But the use of embellishments should be natural. With the excessive (more than the requirement) use of embellishments, the article gets spoiled. The language becomes vivid and effective also with the proper use of idioms and proverbs at the right place. 5. Use of Punctuation Marks—Punctuation marks moderate the language and deliver full assistance in comprehending the inherent emotion in that, Without the use of punctuation marks, some of the more meaning seems to be appearing, like ‘Go, do not stop.’ ‘Do not go, stop’, just by changing the place of the punctuation mark, the meaning of the sentence got changed. 6. Brevity—To say much in only few words, this is the identification of good writing. The emotion which the ordinary people are not able to express in many sentences, a good writer expresses the very same emotion in one or two sentences. The sentences and the passages should not be long. 7. Originality—Originality means the production of our own mind or brain. By copying completely the emotions of someone else, the imagination of the others and the style of the others - the originality of the article gets destroyed. There is no evil in taking assistance from another place, but that must contain affinity. It should have the imprint of own method, own innovative style and own originality. 8. Simplicity—Simplicity is a special quality of writing. The emotions do not become clear instantly if the language is difficult and the purpose of the article is not completed.As far as possible, the simple language should be written. In the use of the difficult words, more impurities take place and the language also becomes artificial.

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9. Sweetness—The words should be of sweet letters. With the excessive use of more jointed letters and with the more use of screaming letters like «∏U, ΔU, «U, …U, · ; the decoration of the article lessens. However, in the article relating to the heroic emotions, the use of letters of ‘≈U’ categorization is good. 10. Satirical Emotions—There are three powers of expressing the meaning of the words in the language: ‘Abhida’, Symptoms and euphemism. In the euphemism power neither the down to earth meaning of the words is taken and nor the connotation meaning is taken. Satirical meaning i.e. further meaning is also taken. Like Angad said on asking by Ravana that he is the son of Bali? You might have held a meeting with my father sometime? i.e. I am the son of that Bali who had kept you in the captivity for a long time. In this sentence there is the sense of satirical meaning. 11. Interestingness —Whatever type of language is written of the article, if the language would be interesting, then it would have full effect. The article which attracts the reader towards it - is the real article. Whatever the article, story or essay is written; the very first sentence of the same should be so interesting that the reader does not leave it without reading. To put humour is very essential for the interestingness. 12. Imagination—The author who has the power to imagine, he is only the successful writer. Some points are not direct; those have to be written with the imagination. Many of the students are not able to write good article in the lack of imagination power. First of all, ponder over the topic and then draw questions out of the same and then try to answer those questions, for the development of the imagination power. Hence, the article which would be containing all the qualities of writing, that article would be called as an excellent article. It is also necessary that the teacher is also familiar with these qualities in the teaching of skill of writing.

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3.5. Different Stages of Teaching Writing Skill Beginning with the development of the refined and flawless writing, till the development of the constructive powers, there are various aims of the teaching of writing skill. The process of teaching of writing skill begins with the primary classes itself for the fulfillment of these aims. Most of the teachers teach the children reading along with writing also who take admission in the school which is not logical and is utterly inappropriate. The teaching of linguistic skill is always in an orderly manner. There should be teaching of oral language in it and after that there should be teaching of reading skill and after that the teaching of writing skill should be commenced. Its psychological reason is that writing is difficult as compared with the reading because in reading there is requirement of recognizing the letters but in writing the shapes of the letters have to be formed. To bestow beautiful and proper shapes to the letters, there is need to create balance in the fingers of the children; there is need to establish balance in their brain and muscles; and their motorability is to be developed slowly and slowly. Generally, the children start doing early the pronunciation of letters and also do recognize them; but more time is taken in writing the letters. Hence, writing should be taught to the child only when he starts reading after completely recognizing the alphabet. Teaching of writing skill passes through the various stages. This process goes on beginning from the primary classes till high school. These are duly divided into four stages :1. Ideal Writing Skill and Practice. 2. Preparation of Writing 3. Teaching of the Construction of Letters 4. Construction of Words and Short Sentences 1. Ideal Writing Skill and Practice—The student gets familiar with beautiful writing while reaching till this stage. Practicing the writing, he also attains the information of the rules of formation of words and sentences. Now the student requires such a writing

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skill and to have information of all those characteristics which bestow ideal form to his writing skill. This level is of high school level and of senior level where they have to write letter, essay, story, paragraph, summary, precis, etc. Here the children should be familiar with the use of the various forms of the words, selection of words according to the text, selection and organization of the subject-matter etc. He is to be enabled so much so that he can bestow the real form to his thoughts conveniently and is able to write the thoughts of the others for which the continuous practice is required. This stage is completely dependent upon practice. In this stage, stability is provided to the writing skill learnt heretofore. The children pay attention particularly towards the accurate spellings, punctuation marks, etc. in this stage. 2. Preparation of Writing—It is extremely necessary to prepare the child psychologically and physically for writing before teaching writing to the child. During preparation, interest is generated in the child towards writing. His supervision power is developed. Somewhat balance starts taking place in his fingers and muscles and his motorability gets developed to the appropriate level. Hence only after the child gets prepared psychologically and physically, he should be moved forward towards the learning of writing. 3. Teaching of the Construction of Letters—Only after preparing the children physically and psychologically for learning writing, the teacher teaches them the construction of letters. It is the extremely important stage of teaching the writing skill. In this beginning stage, foundation is formed in the brains and minds of the children of the writing skill which moves forward towards constructive development through only proper guiding. The teacher has to teach in it to the children the proper, beautiful and shaped texture of the alphabet by the use of various sources and methods. The more effective is the teaching of writing the alphabet, the more curiosity would be awakened towards

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learning writing in the students. 4. Construction of Words and Short Sentences—Teaching of the construction of words and sentences is the third stage of the teaching of writing skill. After learning the writing of the alphabet, learning to write words and sentences, is the natural order of the writing skill. In this order, the children first form words by joining the letters and Matras and then with the combination of words learn to write the sentence. At this stage, the students have to learn the accurate spellings, the rules of the formation of sentences and the rules of the use of punctuation marks.

3.6. Types of Writing Skill (Formal and Informal) According to Champion, “The ultimate aim of the writing skill is to make the student so much capable that he expresses his own points through his own words and through his own methodology independently.”

3.6.1. Skill of Story Writing Story writing is a powerful and important mode. It develops the powers related to the imagination, inspection, memorization, emotions, etc of the students. Skill of written expression is developed by choosing the appropriate words. In the teaching of story writing, the children are taught to write the story themselves. The students write the new story through their generating power and imaginative power. The support of the many of the writing methods is taken for it like travel memoirs, pictorial story method, listen and write, observe the picture and write the story, question-answer method, etc.

3.6.2. Skill of Letter Writing 1. Letter Writing—Letter writing is such a powerful medium, through which he exchanges his thoughts with his relatives located far away. We invite our close relatives on any auspicious occasion. Letter writing is an art. At the primary level, the students should also be

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imparted the knowledge of letter writing along with other linguistic skills. Writing of many types of letters is practiced at the secondary and senior secondary level. Letters are divided into two categories:1. Personal letter writing/Informal letter writing 2. Official letter writing/Formal letter writing 1. Personal Letter Writing—In the writing of this type of letter, there is simplicity, comprehensible language, small sentences and the mention of the points as per the context. There is the use of emotional expression of affinity in it. Some samples of general letters should be shown for teaching the writing of these letters. 2. Official Letter Writing/Formal Letter Writing—These letters are associated with the business or the office in which the standard language is used in the calculated words. The material of the letter is written in very few words in it. The material of the letter begins with the addressing and at the end signatures are done after writing ‘Yours faithfully’. The address of the sender of the letter is written on the right side of the envelope. Parts of the letter :1. Sender’s address 2. Date 3. Addressing 4. Greeting 5. Beginning of the letter 6. Basic subject 7. Ending of the letter 8. Self-instructions 9. Signatures 10. Address of the receiver of the letter. Essential facts worth keeping into consideration in letter writing : 1. Clear mention of the essential facts.

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2. Following the rules of etiquettes. 3. Avoiding unnecessary details by using the point style. 4. Small and little simple and effective sentences. 5. Use of proper punctuation marks. 6. Selection of words compatible with the emotions and to the point. 7. Spontaneous, simple and interesting language style.

3.6.3. Skill of Diary Writing Everyone knows what a diary is—a set of notes about what one is thinking, doing, feeling at a particular moment. But did you know there is a new way to use this common activity to promote better language learning? As teachers we all want our students to do well. Research has shown that more successful learners are in control of their learning— they know what they are doing and what they want to achieve, they know when they make mistakes and they know how to go about correcting those mistakes. Ah!! what a dream. We all want more students like this in our classrooms and in our self-access centers. Successful learners are aware of the process of learning and how their efforts affect the outcome of their learning. Diaries can help build this awareness and can allow us as teachers to help learners improve the process. Diaries can help the learner begin to monitor his/her own progress and give the teacher some idea of the ways learners address their problems. It can also provide an opportunity for the teacher to scaffold, that is, to suggest other ways to address a problem for the learner to try out and/or note patterns of problems or solutions that the learner has. Directions for Diary Writing Diaries can be written as often as possible, preferably at least once a week. Since the goal of the exercise is not to practice the target

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language but rather to focus on the learning process, diaries can be written in the target language or in the learner’s own language; the choice is up to the learner. Also, any comments should address the process, not the language. Language corrections should not be made in this exercise as this is not its purpose. To help students begin to write their diaries, it is helpful to give them clear directions. Here are some that we find work: Try to record your entries either during/after class. Record in your diary any thoughts about any homework reading; before, during, and after completing the task. Write your thoughts in as detailed a fashion as possible. diary should include the following details: 1. What problems do/did you have in class or with your homework? How did you deal with these problems? How well did these solutions work for you? 2. As you approach a task, what do you do before, during, and after to complete the task? (Be sure to write about a specific task, do not state what you usually do. The closer your report is to an actual text or class, the more you will understand your patterns of problems and solutions). Do you feel that what you did was useful? If not, can you think of something else that might work for you? 3. Describe how you feel as you work on the assignment or in class? What did you do about those feelings? Did it help? If not, can you think of something else that might work for you? 4. If this is your second or third assignment, what did you do differently, based on comments on your prior assignment by the teacher or your peers? Was it helpful? If so, why? If not, why not?

Ways to use Diaries Teachers can use the diaries in the following ways:

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1. The teacher can look over each diary and make suggestions. 2. The teacher can ask peers to look over each other’s diaries and make suggestions. This can be very efficient for a number of reasons (a) peers can often suggest other ways to address a problem (b) peers can learn from the solutions of their fellow peers, and (c) the teacher may not have time to read all the diaries but learners can still get input this way. 3. After several diary assignments are in, learners can be asked to look through them and see what their own patterns of problems are and what their strategies for solving them are. 4. The teacher can look over the diaries and see what patterns of problems and solutions individual learners have and make suggestions. Diaries can be used very effectively to help students become aware of their learning process and to begin to reflect on new ways to address their learning problems. Using diaries in language classes is an easy and simple technique–everyone knows what a diary is so it is not hard to learn and to get learners to write one, though they will need the suggestions given above to focus the diary. It is very useful because it helps bring a learner’s attention to the learning process, makes them aware of their problems, solutions and allows them to consider the appropriateness of their solutions. By scaffolding their peers, learners can learn new strategies. And, teachers can become aware of some of their students’ problems. It is powerful because it motivates students and allows them to begin to take control of their learning. The more experience learners have with diary writing, the better they become at it and the more reflective they become. As research tells us, expert learners are in charge of their learning and know how to change the process to suit their learning styles, language and background knowledge, and the task.

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3.6.4. Notice Writing A notice is a formal means of communication. The purpose of a notice is to announce or display information to a specific group of people. Notices are generally meant to be pinned up on specific display boards whether in schools or in public places. Notices issued by the government appear in newspapers. Format : A notice should be written in the following format: • the name of the organisation issuing the notice • the title ‘NOTICE’ • a heading to introduce the subject of the notice • the date • the body of the notice • the writer’s signature, name (in block letters) and designation Name of organisation/office issuing notice Date Notice Heading Body of letter Signature Name Designation Standard abbreviations are allowed. Marking scheme The name of the organisation, ‘NOTICE’, the heading and the date — 2 marks The name and designation of the person writing —½ mark Placing the notice within a box —½ mark Content and language — 2 marks Adherence to the word limit is important: • If the candidate exceeds the word limit by 2 or 3 words, ½ mark is deducted. • If he/she exceeds the word limit by 4 or more words, 1 mark is deducted.

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Value Points in a notice Meeting Date : Time : Venue : Agenda :

Purpose : Who to attend: Contact Address : Specifice Instrucitons : Lost and Found Article lost/found : Date: Time : Place : Identification Marks : Contents : Whom to Contact : When and Where :

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Events Name : Date : Occasion : Time : Venue : Eligibility: Who to attend: Contact Address : Specifice Instrucitons :

Tours/Camps/Exhibitions Name and nature : Occasion : Venue : Date : Objective-information, invitation, appeal : Entry Fee: Time Duration : Contact Address : Specifice instructions-dos and don’ts

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Sample Notices: 1. The Residents’WelfareAssociation, Green Park is organising a ‘Holi Fiesta’in the locality. As the president of the association, draft a notice in not more than 50 words informing the residents about the same. Give other essential details too. Residents’ Welfare association Notice Resident’s Welfare Association Notice 12 June 2008 Holi Fiesta The Resident’s Werlfare association is organising a Holi bash in the colony as per the following detail : Date

:

18 July 2008

Time

:

9:30 am to 5:50 pm

Venue

:

Green Club

The residents are requested to come along with their families and friends and add colour to the rejoicings. Deepak Deepak Kumar President, RWA 2. On the occasion of National Science and Technology Day, the school has decided to organise a Science Fair. Vikram, the secretary of the Science Society, wants to call a meeting of the office bearers of the society to discuss the arrangements for the fair. Write a notice is not more than 50 words.

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3. Delhi Public School, New Delhi Notice 13 June 2008 Meeting of Science Society On the occasion Science and Technology Day, the school has decided to organise a fair. All the bearesrs are requested to attend a meeting in the Scholl Library on 9 June 2008 at 9:30 am to discuss the arrangements for the fair. Rakesh Rakesh Kumar (Secreatry, Science Society) 4. Ram Lakhani is the Head Boy of BhavanVidyalaya, Chandigarh. He and some other students of the school are touched by the plight of the poor and the destitute in the state-run homes, and wish to make a difference in their lives by lessening their sufferings. They decide to raise funds for this purpose. Write a notice, not exceeding 50 words, making an appeal for generous donations. Baal Bhartid Vidyalya, Meerut Notice 01 Feb 2008 Attention Please! Lend a helping hand Your help and co-operation are required to make a difference in the lives of the less fourtunate living in the state rum homes. Donate generously. Deposit your contribution to the undersigned by 08 Feb 2008. The money so raised will be spent on medicines and clothes for the inmates. Vicky Vikcy Bhardwaj (Head Boy)

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5. You are Parthasarthy Mishra, the Head Boy of St John’s High School, Dalhousie. You have been asked to write a notice regarding a sports kit bag found on the school playground. Write the notice in not more than 50 words. Invent necessary details. St. Soldier High School, Shimla Notice 03 March 2008 Foud - A sports Kit Bag A Sport kit bag was found on the playgournd on 01 march 2008 during the recess period. Anyone who has misplace a red soprts bag with huge pockets can collect it from the undersigned within tow days, that is, by 11 March 2008 Suresh Shuresh Mishra (Head Boy) 6. You are the cultural secretary of your school. Write a notice in about 50 words inviting the names of students who would like to participate in the variety programme that you are planning in aid of an old age home in your city. Items may be in the form of solo and group singing, monoacting, magic show, dance performance, etc. Trials for the most suitable participants will be held during the zero period everyday. Little Flower School Notice 10 Jan 2008 Sandhya Tara Our school in organising a cultural programme to collect for ‘Sandhya Tara’ a home for the elderly. We plan to include a dance

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dramma, mono acting, a magic show and other items. Students who wish to participate should submit their name to the undersigned before 20 jan 2008. Trials will be held daily in the zero period. R Sharma Rohit Sharma Secretary, Cultural Society. Worksheet 1. There is going to be an inter-section debate for all the students of Class VIII on the topic ‘Tobacco companies should not sponsor sports events’. As the cultural secretary, draft a notice providing all relevant details in not more than 50 words. 2. As president of the student’s council of your school, write a notice is not more than 50 words asking the students of your school to donate old clothes, books and bags for the Anubhav Shiksha Kendra, a school for the underprivileged being run on your school premises. 3. The Hindustan Times Pace Programme is planning to hold fun-filled workshops on candle making and clay modelling for all Class VIII students on Children’s Day in the school.As Keni Pinto, the Head Boy, write a notice informing students about it. Include necessary details and write the notice is not more than 50 words. 4. The event management company,Altitudes Expeditions, has organised an Adventure Trip of Sitlakhet in the summer vacations for interested students of Classes VIII and IX. As president of the Excursions Committee, write a notice in not more than 50 words informing students about the trip and inviting them to join. Additional questions for practice 1. You are Chief Warden of a Boys’Hostel. You have noticed that the boys often report late for the roll-call at night and have a tendency to damage the hostel property. Write a notice informing the hostel inmates that they should refrain from doing so or else they will be penalised. Do not use more than 50 words.

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2. You are John/Jane, the secretary of the Arts Club of your school. The principal has asked you to put up a notice on the school notice board informing students about the Inter-School Art Competition to be held in your school premises on 9 November, 2006. Write the notice in not more than 50 words giving details like date, time, venue, prize, etc. 3.As president of the Residents’WelfareAssociation, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, draft a notice to be displayed on the society notice board requesting the members to donate generously for the flood-hit victims in Mumbai. They can donate inkind or cash. Give the necessary details in not more than 50 words. 4. As secretary of the Debating Club of the school, Sacred Heart High School, shimla, write a notice not exceeding 50 words inviting the students to participate in the Annual Debate for Classes VII and VIII to be held on 6 November, 2006. The topic for the debate is ‘Should uniforms be made compulsory in school?’ 5. You are Srinjan, president of the Environment Club of your school. A notice for the school notice board is to be prepared regarding the celebration of World Environment Day in school on 15 July, 2006, inviting the students to participate in it by contributing at least seven potted plants from each class. Write the notice in not more than 50 words.

3.6.5. Skill of Articles Writing There are a multitude of different types of articles, including news stories, features, profiles, instructional articles, and so on. While each has specific qualities that are unique to its type, all articles share some common characteristics. From forming and researching the idea to writing and editing the work, writing articles can give a chance to share compelling and important information with readers.

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Features of Articles 1. Outline the Article—Before you begin to formally write, write up an outline of your article. This outline will break down which information goes where. It serves as a guide to help you figure out where you need more information. (i) It’s helpful to start with the five-paragraph essay outline.[2] This outline devotes one paragraph to an introduction, three paragraphs for supporting evidence, and one paragraph for a conclusion. As you start plugging in information into your outline, you may find that this structure doesn’t suit your article so well. (ii) You might also find that this structure doesn’t suit certain types of articles. For example, if you’re doing a profile of a person, your article may follow a different format. 2. Write introduction—A compelling introductory paragraph is crucial for hooking your reader. Within the first few sentences, the reader will evaluate whether your article is worth reading in its entirety. There are a number of ways to start an article, some of which include: (i) Telling an anecdote. (ii) Using a quote from an interview subject. (iii) Starting with a statistic. (iv) Starting with straight facts of the story. 3. Choose quotes and other evidence to support your points—You will likely come across information that succinctly supports what you’re saying. This might include a statement that someone has made, or a sentence within another article that is particularly relevant. Choose the most important and descriptive part to use in your own piece. Add these quotes to your outline. (i) Make sure to fully attribute your quote and use quotation marks around anything that you didn’t write yourself. For example, you might write: A spokesperson for the dairy brand Milktoast says, “Our milk is labeled organic because our cows are only fed organic grass.”

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(ii) Don’t overdo the quotes. Be selective about the quotes you do use. If you use too many quotes, your reader might think you’re using them as filler instead of coming up with your own material. 4. Give proper context—Don’t assume your reader knows as much about your topic as you do. Think about the kinds of background information that your reader needs in order to understand the topic.  Depending on the type of article, you might give a paragraph with background information before proceeding into your supporting evidence. Or, you might weave in this contextual information throughout your article. 5. Show with description—Use eloquent and descriptive language to give the reader a good picture of what you’re writing about. Carefully choose descriptive verbs and precise adjectives. (i) For example, you might write about the grocery shopper having trouble with organic food labels: “Charlie concentrated on jars of peanut butter on the shelf. The words ‘organic’ and ‘natural’ seemed to jump out at him. Every jar said something different. He felt they were shouting at him: ‘Choose me!’ ‘Buy me!’ The words started swimming in front of his eyes. He left the aisle without buying anything.” 6. Include Transitions—Link each separate idea with transitions so that your article reads as one cohesive piece. Start each new paragraph with a transition that links it to the previous paragraph. (i) For example, use words or phrases such as “however…,” “another important point is…,” or “it must be remembered that…” 7. Pay attention to style, structure and voice. You will want to write with a style, structure, and voice which makes sense for the type of article you are writing. Evaluate your audience to determine what the best method would be to present your information to them. (i) For example, a newspaper article will need to offer information in a narrative, chronological format. It should be written with

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accessible and straightforward language. An academic article will be written with more formal language. A how-to article might be written in more informal language. (ii) When writing your article, use a strong “anchoring” sentence at the beginning of each paragraph to move your reader forward. Also, vary the length of your sentences, both short and long. If you find all your sentences are about the same word length, chances are your reader will be ‘lulled” into a standard rhythm and fall asleep. Sentences which are consistently choppy and short may give your reader the impression you are writing advertising copy instead of a well-thought-out article. 8. Write a compelling conclusion—Wrap up your article with a dynamic conclusion. Depending on your article, this might be a conclusion that empowers the reader. For example, if you’re writing an opinion piece about food labeling, you might convey to your readers how they can learn more about labeling. (i) If you started with an anecdote or statistic in your introduction, think about reconnecting to this point in your conclusion. (ii) Conclusions are often strongest when they use a last, brief concrete example that leads the reader to new insights. Conclusions should be ‘forward thinking’ — point the reader in a direction that keeps his or her “thirst” for knowledge going strong. 9 Think about adding supplemental material—You can help your reader understand your topic more clearly by including graphics or other supplemental material. (i) For example, you could include photographs, charts, or infographics to illustrate some of your points. (ii) You could also highlight or develop a major point more with a sidebar-type box. This is an extra bit of writing that delves more deeply into one aspect of the subject. For example, if you’re writing about your city’s film festival, you might include a sidebar

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write-up that highlights one of the films. These types of writeups are usually short (50-75 words, depending on the publication outlet). (iii) Remember, these materials are supplemental. This means that your article should stand on its own. Your writing needs to be understandable, clear and focused without the help of charts, photographs or other graphics. 10. Read your article out loud to yourself—Listen for tone, rhythm, sentence length, coherence, grammatical or content errors, and compelling argument(s). Think of your writing as a a piece of music, an auditory experience, and use your ears to evaluate the quality, strengths, and weaknesses. (i) It is common to be able to identify your own mistakes in grammar or writing while reading aloud as well; this could cut down on the feedback that you may receive from someone else. 11. Learn about your topic and argument—Start researching your specific topic and argument. Go beyond the preliminary research you already conducted. Learn the fundamental issues at stake, the pros and cons, what the experts say, and so on. (i) The best writers have a “documents state of mind.” They search both for primary (original, unpublished) documents as well as secondary documents on that subject. i. Primary sources can include a transcript from a legislative hearing, lawsuit filing, county property indexes with folio numbers, discharge certificates from the military, and photos. Other primary sources could include government written records in the National Archives or special collections sections of your local or university library, insurance policies, corporate financial reports, or personal background reports. ii. Secondary Sources comprise published databases, books, abstracts, articles in English and other languages, bibliographies, dissertations and reference books.

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(i) You can find information on the internet or in a library. You can also conduct interviews, watch documentaries or consult other sources. 12. Decide on the article’s length—Does this article have a word count? Do you need to fill a certain number of pages? Consider what type of content you’re writing about and how much space this will fill. Also, think about how much needs to be written in order to cover the topic adequately. 13. Follow the outline—You’ve drafted your article in outline form, and this will help you focus on writing a solid and coherent article. The outline can also help you remember how details connect to each other. You will also be reminded of how certain quotes support certain points that you’re making. (i) Be flexible, however. Sometimes when you write, the flow makes sense in a way that is different from your outline. Be ready to change the direction of your piece if it seems to read better that way. 14. Have someone else read your article—Try showing the article to a friend, teacher, or other trusted individual to read it. Does this person understand the points you’re trying to make? Does he follow your logic? (i) This person may also catch errors and inconsistencies that you have overlooked. 15. Write a headline—Give your article a suitable headline. The headline is short and to the point, using no more than about 10 words, if that.Aheadline should be action-oriented and should convey why the story is important. It should grab readers and draw them into the article. (i) If you want to convey slightly more information, write a subheadline. This is a secondary sentence that builds on the headline.

3.6.6. Report Writing To present the description of any event is called reporting. It developed from the word ‘Report’ of the English language which means

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‘to tell as viewed’. There is much use of report writing in the journalism. But this is the powerful mode of literature. For teaching the report writing, debate on the events worth mentioning of a particular region. Then by taking any of the events, the teacher should write the main facts of that event for the students on the blackboard. Ask one or two students of the class to write report. Directions should be given to write reports as home work on the events happening in a particular region. i. Event Description Writing : The aim of the teaching event description writing is to provide strength of selecting the words according the sense of expression in which the students are able to describe any of the event whether hear-say or observed from their own eyes. The topics of the event may be related to any contemporary visual/event of home, school, sports, festival and society.

3.6.7. Skill of Dialogue Writing Opportunities should also be provided for practicing dialogue writing in the students at the secondary level. Brevity, expression according to the sense, meaningful reaction on the matters of the second party etc are the qualities of good dialogues. The language of the dialogues should be simple and of common usage. There should be use of popular idioms in it and there should be complete flow, naturalness and mutual inter-relatedness. Definite result must be derived at the end of the conversation in the dialogue. There should be use of refined and grammatical language.

3.6.8. Other Independent and Guided Writing Skill Some Points of Independent and Writing skill are as under following types :(i) Essay Writing—Essay writing is such writing in which we can express our thoughts in a well-linked manner in the limited time. According to Sitaram Chaturvedi, “Essay is the interpretation only of the personal feelings, experiences and beliefs of the writer on any topic.”

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In the essay writing, there are three parts in it:Beginning—The more effective it would be; the better would be the essay. Middle—Subject-matter is well-founded in the paragraphs. Ending—It is the post-script. In it, the writer by gathering the context material of the whole essay impresses the reader after his presentation. Types of Essays—There are many types of essays like declarative, descriptive, ideational, abstractive, autobiographical, satirical and elegant essay. Essential Facts worth keeping into consideration in essay writing : 1. After making the outlines of the essay, then divide the same in paragraphs. 2. Rendering the concept in pure and well-established language. 3. There should be use of correct spellings and grammatically accurate language. 4. Before writing one should think over the topic of the essay. 5. Thoughts coming into mind should be written in the form of indicators. (ii) Elaboration—Writing of any proverb, thought or the basic emotion of a sentence in detail after comprehending is called ‘Emotion Elaboration’. Sometimes much is said briefly in few words and that is called filling the sea in a container. Presenting in detail-brief and to the point expression of this type only is called emotion elaboration. In order to comprehend the basic thought for using some example, subsidiary emotion, refutation or colloboration of concept, emotion elaboration is used. In it, there is teaching of writing of emotion by interpreting the basic emotion, contextual consistency and inherent meaning. It is the reverse of summarization. Hence, explanation and detail of the basic emotion of any maxim or proverb is named as elaboration.

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Facts worth keeping into consideration: 1. Attempt to avoid the unnecessary contexts as far as possible. 2. Necessary clarification of the basic spirit. 3. Use of third person style. 4. To pay attention towards the basic spirit of the maxim. 5. To present the necessary example and facts. 6. Use of spontaneous, simple and comprehensible language. (iii) Summarization/Precis Writing—By safeguarding the main spirit and thought of any essay, legend, story, information, event, etc; writing the same approximately in one-third size is called summarization or precis writing. It is called Precis Writing in English. Precis writing is one such process in which all the presented facts, emotions or thoughts of the original prose are contained only in brief. Nowadays precis writing is getting more in vogue because today the man has lack of time. Therefore, even for the examination system also, he wants to read only the basic facts relating to the topic. This is extremely useful for the journalists, businessmen, advocates, judges and teachers. Point worth paying attention in the précis writing: 1. To write the selecting emotions and thoughts in comprehensible language. 2. To provide natural fluency to the syntax. Hence, there should be order, completeness and productivity of impact and spontaneity of language. 3. Understanding the central idea of the prose by reading it more than once. 4. After selecting the important facts, to pre-arrange them in an orderly manner. 5. To leave the unrelated facts, examples, etc. (iv) Review Writing—Interpretive evaluation of any book or article is called review. In the book review, description of the external

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and internal forms of the book is presented. Mainly, the attention of the critic is focused on the internal form only. In it, first of all the topics of the book, their orderliness and the authenticity of the skill of rendering and also of their rightfulness are also interpreted. This teaching of this writing is appropriate in the senior secondary classes only. The teachers would inform the students of the review and would introduce them with the principles of review. Then the review of two or three essays would be related to them. The students will write comments on any of the essay through the medium of discussion. (v) Interpretation Writing —Detailed interpretation of any particular prose and poetry points of the literature is called interpretation. In the interpretation, first of all, the context is mentioned in which the name of the book and the writer is given. Then the context of the same is written.After that the interpretation of those lines is written and in the end the style of the prose or poetry and decking are described. The role of the teacher is significant in the teaching of the interpretation writing. He should solve the difficulties before the students writing the interpretation. The interpretation should be rectified on time. (vi) Writing Script—The knowledge of the script is required to write any of the language. The method of writing the emotions is called script. Each language has some script or the other. Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, Punjabi is written in the Gurumukhi script, Urdu is written in the Persian script and English is written in the Roman script. Language is the expression of emotions of man through sounds. The presence of listener and the speaker at a time is essential in it. The need of the script was realized for the reason that man wants to leave the memory of the special events of his time. Hence for delivering his thoughts and emotions to the others, man invented the script. Due to this script, today the man has become familiar with the history of his country and that of the other countries and also with the development of culture and civilization. Therefore, it is extremely essential and significant to

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impart the knowledge of the script to the students. The complete credit of attaining knowledge goes only to the teaching of script. Man uses the written language only in order to keep into his memory many of the points of daily life. Writing is an essential part of the modern educational system and in order to learn writing, the education of script is essential. Education of any of the language is only then considered complete when the student of that language is able to understand that language by listening and reading, when the students of that language are able to express their thoughts. Therefore in order to have authority on the language, the writing of the same is also important. The knowledge of the language remains incomplete without the ability of writing. Hence teaching of script is an essential and complementary part of teaching of language. Stages of Script Writing/Methods and Sources—Writing is an activity based ability and skill for which there is requirement of practicing the fingers of the child. A balance has to be established between his brain and muscles which is developed slowly and slowly. Therefore, he is taught to write after learning the reading. There are various stages, methods and sources of teaching script writing the knowledge of which is essential for the student.

EXERCISE Essay Type Questions 1. How we can develop writing skills in the students ? Explain in detail. 2. What is the need and importance of developing writing skills ? 3. Write the different objectives of the development of writing skill. 4. What are the qualities of skill of writing ?

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5. Describe the different stages of teaching writing skills. 6. Write the various features of articles. 7. Discribe the different ways to use diaries.

Short Answer Type Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Write the mechanics of writing in short. Discribe the different aspects of writing skill. What do you know about imagination ? Discuss the different types of writing skill in brief. What are the different types of writing skill ? Write a short note on Notice Writing. What are the different parts of letter ?

UNIT—II PEDAGOGIES OF READING AND WRITING ² Models of Teaching, Models for Assessing the

components of Reading (Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, Fluency, Vocabulary and Text Comprehension). ² Instructional Approaches for Developing Students’ Concepts of Grammar, Punctuation, Spelling and Handwriting. ² Responding to the Texts: Approach to Response Based Study (The Core of the Text, Personal Connection, Reading Beyond the Text, Revisiting the Text). ² Responding to the Contexts: Sharing Responses (Purpose of Sharing, Role of the Teacher and Benefits of Sharing).

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4.1. Instructional Models - Teaching Content and Thinking Skills An instructional model acts as a blueprint for teaching. However, just as blueprints do not dictate all actions of engineers, instructional models are not intended to dictate actions of teachers. Teachers must select the appropriate model in order to achieve a specified goal, just as teacher select appropriate designs or methods based on desired outcomes. Models differ from general teaching strategies because they are designed to reach specific goals. In fact, instructional models generally include a variety of instructional strategies. The sample instructional models outlined below, designed to help students learn content and develop thinking skills, include many high-yield instructional strategies identified by Robert Marzano and his colleagues. They are: (i) Integrative Model In the Integrative Model, students develop a deep understanding of organized bodies of knowledge while developing critical thinking skills. The model is designed to teach combinations of concepts, generalizations, principles, rules, facts and the relationships between them, typically through the use of matrices which may be either teacher or student-generated, depending on student readiness (e.g. a chart comparing characters in a literary work in terms of personal attributes, conflict and symbolism). Students are expected to do the following: describe, compare, and search for patterns; explain similarities and differences; hypothesize outcomes for different conditions; and generalize to form broad relationships. 129

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(ii) Social Interaction Model The Social Interaction Model involves students working collaboratively to reach common goals, increasing learner involvement and providing leadership opportunities and decision-making experiences. It takes various forms including group work (e.g. thinkpair-share, pairs check and combining pairs), cooperative learning (e.g. student teams achievement division, jigsaw and group investigation), and discussion. (iii) Inductive Model In the Inductive Model, students use information that illustrates concepts to search for relationships that lead to uncovering of principles, generalizations and rules, thus allowing students to acquire a deep understanding of those concepts. Illustrations may include concrete materials, pictures, models, case students, simulations, and role play. The Inductive Model is grounded in the view that learners construct their own understanding of the world rather than recording it in an already-organized form. (iv) Concept-Attainment Model Using examples and non-examples to illustrate concepts, the Concept-Attainment Model employs inductive strategies to help students reinforce their understanding of concepts and practice hypothesis testing. As additional examples and non-examples are examined, students analyze possible hypotheses. Students then isolate a hypothesis and form a definition. In the final phase of the model, students analyze additional examples based on the definition. (v) Concept-Development Model The Concept Development Model builds on students’ prior knowledge and refines and extends concept information so that students can understand increasingly complex and abstract ideas. Students list, group, and regroup items related to a subject, verbalizing common attributes and revealing thought patterns. Students label the groups, draw inferences, and make generalizations from the specific data

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available to them. Finally, creating a one-sentence summary about each of the groupings, students demonstrate understanding of multiple relationships. (vi) Problem-based Model The Problem-based Model is designed to teach problem-solving skills and content and to develop self-directed learning. The model uses a problem or a question as a focal point for student-led investigation and inquiry. Problem-based learning is a broad family of teaching models that includes problem solving, inquiry, project-based learning and case-based learning. (vii) Direct-Instruction Model With emphasis on active teaching and high levels of student involvement, the Direct Instruction Model focuses on both concepts and skills. In this model, the teacher structures the topic, explains it to students, provides students with opportunities to practice and gives feedback. Control of learning gradually shifts from teacher to learners. (viii) Lecture-Discussion Model The Lecture-Discussion Model uses a teacher-centered approach to help students understand organized bodies of knowledge. Teachers use advanced organizers at the beginning of a lesson to preview and structure new material, linking it to students’ existing network of organized and interconnected ideas and relationships. (ix) Models of Language Teaching and Learning Language instructors at the university level are often in one of three situations: (a) They are graduate students who have extensive knowledge of language, literature, and culture, but are not trained as language teachers. (b) They are language instructors with experience teaching in their countries of origin, but little or no training in the teaching approaches commonly used in the United States.

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(iii) They are professionals in other fields who are native speakers of the language, but are not trained as teachers These instructors often must begin their work in the classroom with little or no guidance to help them appreciate which methods work, how, and why. In response, they may fall back on an outdated model for understanding language teaching and language learning. (x) Older Model—Language learning is a product of transmission. Teacher transmits knowledge. Learner is recipient. This teacher-centered model views the teacher as active and the student as fundamentally passive. The teacher is responsible for transmitting all of the information to the students. The teacher talks; the students listen and absorb (or take a nap). The teacher-centered model may be attractive to new language instructors for several reasons: · It is the method by which they were taught. · It makes sense: The teacher should be the focus of the classroom, since the teacher knows the language and the students do not. · It requires relatively little preparation: All the teacher needs to do is present the material outlined in the appropriate chapter of the book. · It requires relatively little thought about student or student activities: All student listen to the same (teacher) presentation, then do related exercises. However, experienced language instructors who reflect on their teaching practice have observed that the teacher-centered model has two major drawbacks: · It involves only a minority of students in actual language learning. · It gives students knowledge about the language, but does not necessarily enable them to use it for purposes that interest them.

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To overcome these drawbacks, language teaching professionals in the United States and elsewhere have adopted a different model of teaching and learning. (xi) Newer Model—Language learning is a process of discovery. Learner develops ability to use the language for specific communication purposes. Teacher models language use and facilitates students’ development of language skills. In this learner-centered model, both student and teacher are active participants who share responsibility for the student’s learning. Instructor and students work together to identify how students expect to use the language. The instructor models correct and appropriate language use, and students then use the language themselves in practice activities that simulate real communication situations. The active, joint engagement of students and teacher leads to a dynamic classroom environment in which teaching and learning become rewarding and enjoyable. Language instructors who have never experienced learnercentered instruction can find it daunting in several ways. (a) It feels chaotic: Once student start working in small groups, the classroom becomes noisy and the instructor must be comfortable with the idea that students may make mistakes that are not heard and corrected. (b) It sounds like a bad idea: The phrase “learner centered” makes it sound as though the instructor is not in control of the classroom. (c) It requires more preparation time: Instructors must consider students’ language learning goals, identify classroom activities that will connect those with the material presented in the textbook, and find appropriate real-world materials to accompany them. (d) It is mysterious: It’s not clear what, exactly, an instructor does to make a classroom learner centered.

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(e) It feels like it isn’t going to work: When students first are invited to participate actively, they may be slow to get started as they assess the tasks and figure out classroom dynamics. This final point is an important one. In fact, in an effective learnercentered classroom, the instructor has planned the content of all activities, has set time limits on them, and has set them in the context of instructor-modeled language use. The instructor is not always the center of attention, but is still in control of students’ learning activities. This section is designed to help new language instructors become comfortable with learner-centered instruction and put it into practice in their classrooms. The pages on Teaching Goals and Methods, Planning a Lesson, and Motivating Learners provide guidelines and examples for putting learner-centered instruction into practice. The pages on Teaching Grammar, Teaching Listening, Teaching Speaking, and Teaching Reading illustrate learner-centered instruction in relation to each of these modalities. Teaching Goals and Methods Guidelines for Communicative, Learner-centered Instruction. These ten guidelines will help you make communicative language teaching and learner-centered instruction part of your own instructional approach. (1) Include awareness of cultural aspects of language use (2) Provide appropriate input (3) Use language in authentic ways (4) Provide context (5) Design activities with a purpose (6) Encourage collaboration (7) Use an integrated approach (8) Address grammar consciously

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(9) Use task-based activities (10) Adjust feedback/error correction to the situation 1. Include Awareness of Cultural Aspects of Language Use—Languages are cognitive systems, but they also express ideas and transmit cultural values. When you are discussing language use with your students, it is important to include information on the social, cultural and historical context that certain language forms carry for native speakers. Often these explanations include reference to what a native speaker would say, and why. Culture is expressed and transmitted through magazines and newspapers, radio and television programs, movies, and the internet. Using media as authentic materials in the classroom can expand students’ perspectives and generate interesting discussions about the relationships between language and culture. 2. Provide Appropriate Input—Input is the language to which students are exposed: teacher talk, listening activities, reading passages, and the language heard and read outside of class. Input gives learners the material they need to develop their ability to use the language on their own. Language input has two forms. Finely tuned input (i) Is matched to learners’ current comprehension level and connected to what they already know. (ii) Focuses on conscious learning of a specific point: the pronunciation of a word, the contrast in the uses of two verb tenses, new vocabulary, useful social formulas. (iii) Is controlled by the instructor or textbook author. (iv) Is used in the presentation stage of a lesson. Roughly tuned input (v) Is more complex than learners’ current proficiency and stretches the boundaries of their current knowledge. (vi) Focuses on authentic use of language in listening or reading passages.

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(vii) Is used “as is,” with minimal alteration by the instructor or textbook author. (viii) Is used in the activity stage of the lesson. Roughly tuned input challenges student to use listening and reading strategies to aid comprehension. When selecting authentic materials for use as roughly tuned input, look for listening and reading selections that are one level of proficiency higher than students’ current level. This will ensure that students will be challenged by the material without being overwhelmed by its difficulty. 3. Use Language in Authentic Ways—In order to learn a language, instead of merely learning about it, students need as much as possible to hear and read the language as native speakers use it. Instructors can make this happen in two ways. Teacher talk: Always try to use the language as naturally as possible when you are talking to students. Slowing down may seem to make the message more comprehensible, but it also distorts the subtle shifts in pronunciation that occur in naturally paced speech. (i) Speak at a normal rate. (ii) Use vocabulary and sentence structures with which students are familiar. (iii) State the same idea in different ways to aid comprehension. Materials: Give students authentic reading material from newspapers, magazines, and other print sources. To make them accessible. (iv) Review them carefully to ensure that the reading level is appropriate. (v) Introduce relevant vocabulary and grammatical structures in advance. (vi) Provide context by describing the content and typical formats for the type of material (for example, arrival and departure times for travel schedules).

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Advertisements, travel brochures, packaging, and street signs contain short statements that students at lower levels can manage. The World Wide Web is a rich resource for authentic materials. Reading authentic materials motivates students at all levels because it gives them the sense that they really are able to use the language. 4. Provide Context—Context includes knowledge of (i) the topic or content. (ii) the vocabulary and language structures in which the content is usually presented. (iii) the social and cultural expectations associated with the content. To help students have an authentic experience of understanding and using language, prepare them by raising their awareness of the context in which it occurs. (i) Ask them what they know about the topic. (ii) Ask what they can predict from the title or heading of a reading selection or the opening line of a listening selection. (iii) Review the vocabulary (including idiomatic expressions) and sentence structures that are usually found in that type of material (iv) Review relevant social and cultural expectations. 5. Design Activities with a Purpose—Ordinarily, communication has a purpose: to convey information. Activities in the language classroom simulate communication outside the classroom when they are structured with such a purpose. In these classroom activities, students use the language to fill an information gap by getting answers or expanding a partial understanding. For example, students work in pairs and each is given half of a map, grid or list needed to complete a task. The pair then talk to each other until they both have all the information. 6. Encourage Collaboration—Whenever possible, ask students to work in pairs or small groups. Give students structure in the form of a defined task and outcome. This structure will allow students to collaborate as they develop a work plan, discuss the substance of

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the task and report the outcome. They will thus use language in a variety of ways and learn from each other. Effective collaborative activities have three characteristics. (i) Communication gap: Each student has relevant information that the others don’t have (ii) Task orientation: Activity has a defined outcome, such as solving a problem or drawing a map (iii) Time limit: Students have a preset amount of time to complete the task 7. Use an Integrated Approach—Integration has two forms. Mode integration is the combination of listening, speaking, reading, and writing in classroom activities. By asking students to use two or more modes, instructors create activities that imitate real world language use. Content integration is bringing content from students’ fields of study into the language curriculum. University students often find it instructive to read, discuss, and write about material whose content they already know, because their knowledge of the topic helps them understand and use the language. They are able to scaffold: to build on existing knowledge as they increase their language proficiency. For students who plan to study and/or work in a field that will require them to use the language they are learning, integration of content can be a powerful motivator. 8. Address Grammar Consciously—University students usually need and appreciate direct instruction in points of grammar that are related to classroom activities. These students often have knowledge of the rules associated with standard use of their native language (metalinguistic knowledge) and can benefit from development of similar knowledge in the target language and discussion of similarities and differences. Discuss points of grammar in the contexts where they arise. Asking students to think through a rule in the context of an effort to

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express themselves clearly is a more effective way of helping them internalize the rule than teaching the rule in isolation. Two types of grammar rules to address when using authentic materials : · Prescriptive rules: State how the language “should” or “must” be used; define what is “correct.” These are the rules that are taught in language textbooks. · Descriptive rules: State how the language is actually used by fluent speakers. The degree to which descriptive rules differ from prescriptive rules depends on the setting (casual/formal use of language), the topic, and the backgrounds of the speakers. 8. Use Task-based Activities—Fluent speakers use language to perform tasks such as solving problems, developing plans and working together to complete projects. The use of similar task-based activities in the classroom is an excellent way to encourage students to use the language. Tasks may involve solving a word problem, creating a crossword puzzle, making a video, preparing a presentation or drawing up a plan. 9. Adjust Feedback/Error Correction to Situation—In the parts of a lesson that focus on form (see Planning a Lesson), direct and immediate feedback is needed and expected. Encourage students to self-correct by waiting after they have spoken or by asking them to try again. Feedback techniques: (i) Paraphrase a student’s utterances, modeling the correct forms (ii) Ask students to clarify their utterances, providing paraphrases of their own Avoid feeding students the correct forms every time. Gradually teaching them to depend less on you and more on themselves is what language teaching is all about. In the parts of a lesson that focus on communication activities (see Planning a Lesson), the flow of talk should not be interrupted by

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the teacher’s corrections. When students address you, react to the content of their utterances, not just the form. Your response is a useful comprehension check for students, and on the affective level it shows that you are listening to what they say. Make note of recurring errors you hear so that you can address them with the whole group in the feedback session later (see Planning a Lesson).

4.2. Concept of Teaching Model Teaching involves a system as well as family of activities or acts. Teaching is goal-oriented as well influence-oriental family of activities. The most-explicit goal of teaching is causing as well as facilitating student learning. Up till now no systematic theory of teaching independent of cogent learning theories, have been evolved and applied in classroom practices or in distance learning system. Therefore, keeping in mind quality and quantity of student learning, same experts have thought to develop model of teaching (theory in evolving stage or loose theory) from different theories of learning. As because there are numerous theories of learning, models of teaching are also many, not one. Development of models of teaching is one of the recent innovations in teaching. An important purpose of discussing models of teaching is to assist the teacher to have a wide range of approaches for creating a proper interactive environment for learning. An intelligent use of these approaches enables the teacher to adapt him to the learning needs of the students. According to the report of the Secondary Education Commission: “Even the best curriculum and the most perfect syllabus remain dead unless quickened to life by the right methods of teaching and the right kind of teacher.” It seems that the teaching learning process has become more mechanical than meaningful. Interesting, appealing and repeated encounters are a must for meaningful learning. Suitable instructional strategies are essential for achieving the educational objectives. This led researchers to explore various methods and techniques for the development of cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.

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There is no single best way or teaching strategy that can be employed in all situations since the number of teaching goals is large and diverse in nature. The best technique is the one that will be most effective or reaching a particular goal in a given situation. This is the philosophy behind the Models of Teaching. (i) Meaning and Definitions of Teaching Model The term ‘model’ carries different meaning in our day to day life. The term model has been interpreted in different ways. We use the word model in our everyday life in many ways. A model is an exact replica of the original thing. We look at the model of Taj Mahal and find it an exact replica of the original. This is why models prove a quite effective aid as a substitute for reality in the class room situation. Teaching models may be described as some sort of guidelines, plans or techniques or strategies designed to achieve specific educational objectives. They differ from general teaching techniques and strategies in the sense that they are designed to meet specific objective or goals. They help a teacher in his task in the same way as a constructed model or blueprint helps an engineer in his project. Model of teaching is just a blueprint designed in advance for providing necessary structure and direction to the teacher for realizing the stipulated objectives. There is wide variety of teaching models available for use by a teacher. These models have been derived from research in psychology and instructional technology. Definitions of model of Teaching : There are many definitions of ‘Model of Teaching’. We shall concentrate our view on model of teaching with the definition given by Bruce Joyce and Martha Weil. “A model of teaching is a plan or program that can be used to shape curriculum (long-term courses of students), to design instructional materials and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings.” It tells us how to systematically create learning environment.” A model of teaching consists of guidelines for designing learning environment.

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Joyce and Weil—described teaching modals as following; “Teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the process of specifying and producing particular environmental situations which cause the students to interact in such a way that specific change occurs in his behaviour.” “Teaching model is a pattern or plan which can be used to shape a curriculum or course, to select instructional materials and to guide a teacher’s actions.” “A model of teaching consists of guidelines for designing educational activities and environments. It specifies ways of teaching and learning that are intended to achieve certain kinds of goals.” Azit Singh and N.K. Jangira (1983)—“A model of teaching is a set of inter-related components arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to realize specific goal. It helps in designing instructional activities and environmental facilities, carrying out of these activities and realization of the stipulated objectives.” Paul D. Eggen et al (1979)—“Models are prescriptive teaching strategies designed to accomplish particular instructional goals.” H. C. Wyld—“To confirm in behaviour, action and to direct one’s action according to some particular design or ideal.” On the basis of above definitions it can be concluded that teaching models are some sort of guidelines, plans, techniques or strategies designed to achieve specific educational objectives. They differ from general teaching objectives in the sense that they are designed to meet specific objectives or goals. A model of teaching consist of guidelines for designing educational activities and environments. Model of teaching is a plan that can also be utilized to shape courses of studies, to design instructional material and to guide instruction. “Model of teaching can be defined as instructional design which describes the process of specifying and producing particular environmental situations which causes the students

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to interact in such a way that a specific change occurs in their behaviour.” Following are the activities used in teaching models : (i) To determine such criterion behaviors so that the performance of the pupils may be seen. (ii) To specify the specific teaching strategies for achieving the desirable educational objectives by analyzing the interaction in the class-room situations. (iii) To modify the teaching strategies and tactics if the expected changes in the behavior do not occur. (iv) To give practical shape to the learning achievement. (v) To select such stimulus so that the pupil may give expected response. (vi) To specify such situations in which the responses of the pupils may be seen.

4.2.1. Functions and Sources of Teaching A. Functions of Teaching Model : Following are the functions of a Models of Teaching Guidance : (i) They help in designing appropriate educational activities. (ii) They assist procedure of material to create interesting and effective materials and learning sources. (iii) They stimulate the development of new educational innovations . (iv) They help in the formation of theory of teaching. (v) They help to establish teaching & learning relationship empirically and bring Improvement in teaching. (vi) They help in guiding the teacher to select appropriate teaching techniques, strategies and methods for the effective utilization of the teaching situation and material for realizing the objectives.

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(vii) They help in bringing about desirable changes in the behaviour of the learners. (viii) They help in finding out ways and means of creating favourable environmental situation for carrying out teaching process. (ix) They help in achieving desirable teacher-pupil interaction during teaching. (x) They help in the construction of a curriculum or contents of a course. (xi) They help in the proper selection of instruction material for teaching the prepared course or the curriculum. Besides these above, some other functions of Models of teaching are described as under : 1. Developing Curriculum—A model of teaching helps in the developing of curriculum for different for different courses at different level of education which is functionally transacted by the teacher. 2. Specification Instrumental Material—A model of teaching specifies in detail the different types of instructional materials which are to be used by the teacher to bring desirable changes in the personality of the learners. 3. Guidance— A model of teaching serves a useful purpose of providing in definite terms what the teacher has to do. He has a comprehensive design of instruction through which he / she can achieve the objectives of the course. Teaching is a scientific, controlled and goal-directed activity. Thus a model of teaching provides guidance to the teacher as well as to the students to attain the goal of instruction. 4. Improvement in teaching : A model helps improving the teaching-learning process in systematic and scientific manners and ultimately helps developing. Other functions are more specific in nature. Model of teaching-

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(i) gives practical shape to the systems of teaching acts, (ii) determines criterion behaviour so that performance of the learners could be observed, assessed and evaluates for taking further decisions, (iii) helps modify teaching strategies for teachers more scientifically and (iv) helps modify teacher behaviours through teacher development programmes. B. Sources of Models of Teaching : The Sources of Models of Teaching are The social interaction sources. The information processing sources. The personal experiences behaviour modification sources. An important purpose of discussing models of teaching is to assist the teacher to have a wide range of approaches for creating a proper interactive environment for learning. An intelligent use of these approaches enables the teacher to adopt him to the learning needs of the students. Teaching Models on the information processing sources : The Teaching Models on the information processing sources are Inductive Teaching Model by Hilda Taba. Inquiry Training Model by Richard Suchman Science Inquiry Model by Joseph J. Schwab, Jerome Bruner. Concept Attainment Model by Jerome Bruner. Development Model by Jean Piaget. Advance Organizer Model by David Ausubel. Master learning Model by Bloom. Teaching Models based on Social Interaction : The Teaching Models based on social interaction are Jurisprudential Teaching Model by Donal Oliver and James P. Shaver. Group Investigation Model by Herbert Thelen, John Dewey. Social Inquiry Model by Byron Massialas , Benjamin Cox. Laboratory Method Model by National Training Laboratory, Bethel, Maine. Ref : Models of Teaching Bruce R. Joyce & Marsha Weil anandkab.blogspot.in 9

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4.2.2. Strategies and Models for Teachers The terms strategies, instructional strategies, instructional approaches and instructional models are sometimes used synonymously. Strategies for Teachers Strategies are general approaches to instruction that apply in a variety of content areas and are used to meet a range of learning objectives. For example, the ability to engage students is essential if they are to learn as much as possible. Questioning is arguably the most effective way for teachers to engage students, and teachers use questioning regardless of the teaching model they employ. Questioning is a teaching strategy. As another example, reviewing a previously discussed topic before beginning a lesson is also important, regardless of the teaching model being used, as is providing students with feedback about homework items, quizzes and tests. Review and feedback are both teaching strategies. These strategies are general and apply to all grade levels, content areas and topics. For example, first-grade teachers use questioning as a strategy to guide their students’ understanding of the sounds of letter blends and high school teachers use questioning to guide their students’ understanding of topics ranging from chemical equations to the characters in Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter. Models of Teaching By comparison, teaching models are specific approaches to instruction that have three characteristics : (i) Goals—They are designed to help students develop criticalthinking abilities and acquire deep understanding of specific forms of content. (ii) Phases—They include a series of steps-often referred to as “phases”-that are intended to help students reach specific learning goals. (iii) Foundations—They are supported by theory and research on learning and motivation.

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Teaching strategies are incorporated within each of the models. For instance, questioning is essential for the success of all the models in this book, as are careful lesson organization, feedback and other strategies. To examine teaching models more closely, we can compare the role of a teacher using a model to that of an engineer. In considering a project, an engineer first identifies the type of structure to be built, such as a bridge, building or road. Having selected a project, an appropriate design or blueprint is chosen. The specifications of the blueprint determine the actions the engineer will take and the kind of structure that will result. Similarly, when you use a models approach to instruction, you first identify learning goals and you then select the model that will best help you reach those goals. The model then guides your actions. For example, Bob Duchene’s goal was for his students to understand information about the Vietnam War. When a goal is for students to get information from a variety of sources and the information would be difficult to get in another way, lectures can be useful. On the other hand, Judy Holmquist’s goal was for students to identify patterns and try to establish cause-and-effect relationships, so she choose a different model. The same is true for Richard Nelms and Laura Hunter. These teachers selected models that would best help them reach their learning goals for the students. So, using this analogy, an instructional model is a type of blueprint for teaching. Just as a blueprint provides structure and direction for the engineer, the model provides structure and direction for the teacher. However, a blueprint does not dictate all of the actions of an engineer, and a model cannot dictate all of the actions taken by a teacher. A blueprint is not a substitute for basic engineering skills and a teaching model is not a substitute for basic teaching skills. It cannot take the place of qualities that expert teachers must have, such as professional knowledge, sensitivity to students and the ability to make decisions in

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ill-defined situations. The model is instead a tool designed to help teachers make their instruction systematic and efficient. Models provide enough flexibility to allow teachers to use their own creativity, just as engineers use creativity in the act of construction. As with a blueprint, an instructional model is a design for teaching within which teachers use all of the skills and insights at their command. The Model Core Teaching Standards : In response to the increased emphasis on professional knowledge in teaching, The standards are an initial effort to articulate, through the lens of the teacher, what effective teaching and learning should look like. The standards are grouped into four general categories : (a) The learner and Learning—Teachers must understand students, their differences and how they learn. (b) Content—Teachers must have a deep under-standing of the content they teach and how to make that content understandable to students. (c) Instructional Practice—Teachers must understand and integrate planning, instructional practice and assessment to promote learning for all students. (d) Professional Responsibility—Teachers must regularly examine their own work through self-reflection and collaboration with colleagues. The 10 standards are classified within the four categories.

4.2.3. Reflective Practice and Models of Teaching A teaching model is a blueprint for teaching, but it “cannot dictate all of the actions taken by a teacher” and that “a teaching model is not a substitute for basic teaching skills.” Specific steps are suggested for implementing each of the models but no two teaching situations are identical. Within the context of any lesson, a number of necessary decisions lie beyond what the model can dictate. These include:

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How you will represent the content. What students you will call on, and when. The specific questions you will ask. How you will prompt students if they don’t respond or answer incorrectly. (v) How quickly you pace the lesson. (vi) How you bring the lesson to closure. (vii) How you will adapt the lesson to the developmental levels of your students. (viii) How you adapt the lesson to accommodate the diversity in your students’ backgrounds. (ix) If and how you will incorporate technology into your lesson. (x) Your specific learning goal(s). (xi) What specific steps you will take to increase your students’ motivation. None of us ever teaches a perfect lesson, and reflective practice is a mechanism that we can use to examine what we’ve done and think about what we might do next time to improve our work. Questions we might ask during the process of reflection can include: (i) Was my assessment consistent with my goals and learning activity? (ii) Did I include extraneous information not pertinent to the lesson? (iii) Did the students learn as much as possible? (iv) Did I appropriately adapt the model to best meet the needs of my students? (v) Was I clear about my teaching goals? (vi) Did I represent the content as effectively as possible? (vii) What could I have done to better maintain the students’ attention and interest?

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Asking ourselves these questions and others can help us continually improve and develop as teachers.

4.2.4. Characteristics and Assumptions of Models of Teaching A. Characteristices : All good and systematic models of teaching have some common identifiable characteristics which are described as follows : (1) Criterion of performance—A model specifies the criteria of acceptable performance which is expected from the students. The model of teaching delineates the behavioral outcomes which the learner would demonstrate after completing specific instructional sequences. (2) Specification of operations—All models of teaching specify mechanism that provide for students reaction and interaction with the environment of learning that is assumed to create with the interplay of the tasks indicated in the model. (4) Scientific Procedure—A model of teaching is not a haphazard combination of facts but on the hand it is a systematic procedure to modify the behaviour of learners. They are based on certain assumptions as well as grounded on specific theories of learning. (5) Specification of learning outcome—All models of teaching specify the learning outcomes in details in observable student’s performance. What the student will perform, after completing an instructional sequence, is specified in detail. (6) Specification of environment—This means that every model of teaching specifies in definite terms the learning environmental conditions under which a students will learn and modify their behaviours as focused in the model. B. Assumptions—Each model of teaching has certain basic assumptions which are kept in mind while a model of teaching to be developed. The assumptions pertain to at least three elements or aspects - (a) creation of appropriate learning environment, (b)

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occurrence of the nature and quality of interaction between the learners and teacher, and (c) using appropriate teaching strategies. Models of teaching have been evolved on the following assumptions : 1. The first assumptions underlying all models of teaching is that teaching is the creation of appropriate environment. There are various component parts of the teaching environment which are interdependent. 2. The second assumption is that content, skill, instructional roles, social relationship, types of activities, physical facilities and their use, all form an environmental system whose parts interact with each other to constitute the behaviour of all participants, teachers as well as students. 3. The third assumption is that different combinations of these elements create different types of environment and elicit different outcomes. 4. The fourth and the last assumption is that models of teaching create environment. They provide rough specification for environment in the class room teaching learning process. (7) Answering some Fundamental Question : A model of teaching provides answer to all the fundamental questions : (a) How does a teacher behaves ? (b) Why he / she does like this ? (c) What would be effects of his / her such behaviour on the learners ? (8) Based on Individual Differences : A model of teaching follow or age old maxims of teaching of teaching what have been accumulated by our long experiences in teaching. (9) Presenting Appropriate Experiences : A model of teaching provides some kind of experiences to both the learners and the teacher. These experiences are not based on rule of thumb, rather on the basic of some valuable data, theory or even philosophy. (10) Maxims of Teaching Driven : All models of teaching follow our age old maxims of teaching what have been accumulated by our experience in teaching.

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(11) Development of Human Ability : All models are humanist in nature as well as in orientation. They are developed and used for the development of human ability and capability. All consider that teaching is a system of human acts for the purpose of development of human capacity of others, called learners, in the best economic and efficient manner. (12) Influenced by Philosophy of Life : Each model of teaching is influenced by some kind of philosophy of real life. That is reflected in the edifice of curriculum. Along with aforesaid characteristics of Models of Teaching some more important characteristics are given below : (i) Every model of teaching specifies in definite terms the environmental conditions under which a student’s response should be observed. (ii) All models of teaching denote mechanisms that provide for students’ reaction and interaction with the environment. (iii) A model of teaching is not a combination of facts but on the other hand it is a systematic procedure to modify the behaviour of the learners. (iv) A model describes the criteria of acceptable performance, which is expected from the students. (v) All models of teaching specify the learning outcomes in detail on observable student performance.

4.2.5. Need, Types and Basic Elements of Teaching Model A. Need of teaching Model : The basic question which may be asked by a reader here, what is the need to develop a model of teaching and what are its specific

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function or how does a model help the practicing teacher in class room teaching-learning process ? The pertinent answers may be given as follow: 1. Teaching Models helps in development and selection of instructional materials—A model of teaching specifies in detail the different types of instructional materials which are to be used by the teacher to bring desirable changes in the personality of the learners. 2. Helpful in improving the teaching learning process—A model helps improving the teaching-learning process in systematic and scientific manners and ultimately helps developing. 3. Helps in providing practical shape—Model of teaching gives practical shape to the systems of teaching acts. 4. Helps in observation of learners—Teaching Models determines criterion behaviour so that performance of the learners could be observed, assessed and evaluates for taking further decisions. 5. Teaching models helps to modify teaching strategies— Teaching models helps to modify teaching strategies for teachers more scientifically. 6. Helpful in modification of behaviour—Teaching models helps in modifying teacher behaviours through teacher development programmes. 7. Teaching Models provide Guidance—A model of teaching serves a useful purpose of providing in definite terms what the teacher has to do. He has a comprehensive design of instruction through which he can achieve the objectives of the course. Teaching is a scientific, controlled and goal-directed activity. Thus a model of teaching provides guidance to the teacher as well as to the students to attain the goal of instruction. 8. Models helps in designing curriculum or course of study—A model of teaching helps in the developing of curriculum for different for different courses at different level of education which is functionally transacted by the teacher.

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B. Types of Teaching Models Every teaching model has its specific objective. In order to achieve the objective of a teaching model, the teacher has to choose right type of model for achieving the particular objective. On the basis of these specific objectives the teaching models have been classified into following three main types : 1. Philosophical Teaching Models—Philosophical teaching models include ‘The Insight Model’ given by Plato and ‘The Impression Model of Teaching’ given by John Locke ? 2. Psychological Model of Teaching—It includes ‘A Basic Teaching Model’ given by Robert Glaser and ‘An Interaction Model of Teaching’ given by N.A. Flander. 3. Modern Teaching Models—“Modern teaching models” includes the following categories of modals : (i) Personal Development Models—Personal Models emphasise the process by which the individuals construct and organize their unique reality. These types of models help an individual to develop fully in the environment. It includes ‘Synectic model’ given by William J. Gordon. (ii) Behavioural modification Model—These models are concerned with the behaviour modification of individuals. These models attempt to develop efficient systems for sequencing learning tasks and shaping behaviour by manipulating reinforcement. It includes modal like ‘Training Model’, ‘Stress Reduction Model’ etc. (iii) Social interaction Model—The social aspects of human beings are kept in view and their social development is more emphasized. Social Interaction Models emphasise the relationship to society and to other persons and give priority to the importance of democratic process and the importance of society. Social interaction model includes ‘Social Inquiry Model’ given by Byron, Mossilas and Cox, ‘The Group Investigation Model’ given by Herbert, Thelen and John Dewey, ‘Classroom Meeting Model’ given by William Glaser.

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(iv) Information processing Models—This type of modals are concerned with the intellectual development of the individual and help to develop the method of processing information from the environment. Information Processing refers to the way pupils handle stimuli from environment, organize data, sense problems, generate concepts and solutions to problems and employ verbal and non-verbal symbol. Information processing models includes ‘Concept Attainment Model given by J. Bruner and ‘Advance Organizer Model’ given by David P. Ausubel. C. Basic Elements of a Teaching Model A teaching modal is comprises of following six components : 1. Principle of reaction—This element is concerned with the teacher’s reaction to the students responses. In it, he comes to know that how he has to react to the responses of the students and has to see whether the learners have been actively involved in the process, or not. 2. Social System—Social system describes student and teacher roles and relationship and the kind of norms that are encouraged. The concept of hierarchical relationship is explained as the sharing of intimating activity by the teacher and the learner, the location of authority, and the amounts of control over activity that emerges from the process of interaction. This element (social system) is concerned with the activities of pupil and the teacher and their mutual relationships are discussed. Every teaching model has separate objectives and will have therefore separate social systems. For example in one model, the teacher plays a role of a democratic one, he guides, directs and plans co-operatively with students. 3. Support System—It means the additional requirements beyond the usual human skill, capacities and technical facilities. In it, the evaluation is done by oral or written examination, whether the teaching objectives have been achieved or not.

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4. Application—It is an important element of a teaching model. It means the utility or usage of the learnt material in other situations. This model serves as an evaluation tool to determine whether the learners have mastered the previously learned ideas or concepts. The different concepts like democracy, socialism, capitalism which otherwise are difficult for the learners become easy. The basic concepts of mathematics, social science, science and languages can be effectively taught by this model. It can be used with all ages and grade levels. The curriculum of lower classes mainly consists of concrete concepts and it serves a best tool to attain concepts at lower level with the help of concrete material. 5. Focus—Every teaching model differs from another in terms of its objectives. It is the nucleus of a teaching model. Every model is developed by keeping in view its focal point or objective. For example the focus of concept attainment model is to develop inductive reasoning among students. 6. Syntax—The syntax describes the Model. It is the sequence of activities called phases. Each Model has a distinct flow of phases. Comparing the phases of Model reveals the practical difference between Models. Syntax means the detailed description of the model in action. In it, the teaching activities and interactions between a pupil and the teacher are determined in such a pattern or in a sequence that the teaching objectives are achieved conveniently by producing desirable situations. D. Basic Teaching Model of Glaser Basic Teaching Model was developed by Robert Glaser in 1962. It is termed as basic because it tries to explain the whole teaching process by dividing it into the four basic components or parts, namely, (1) Instructional Objectives, (2) Entering Behaviour, (3) Instructional procedures, (4) Performance assessment.

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1. Instructional Objectives—Instructional Objectives indicate the stipulated goals that a student is expected to attain after the completion of a part of instruction. These are usually based on Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives. 2. Entering Behaviour—Entering Behaviour implies the initial behavior of the student before the beginning of instruction. The assessment of the entering behavior is an important aspect of the instructional process. 3. Instructional Procedures—Instructional Procedures represent the teaching methods, strategies and student-teacher interaction patterns involved in teaching. Instructional procedures are guided by the nature of the instructional objectives and the entering behavior. 4. Performance Assessment—Performance Assessment involves the extent to which the stipulated objectives have been fulfilled. It involves the use of suitable evaluation technique like tests, observation etc. It serves as a feedback device for each of the steps and elements of the teaching process. As a matter of fat, all these four basic components of the teaching process interact and influence each other. One sets the base for the other by providing as a base or feedback for the successful operation of the teaching act. All these four basic components of the teaching process interact and influence each other as explained in the diagram. Elements of Glaser Basic Teaching Model : (i) Focus—It attempts to pinpoint the process and major activities comprising the entire teaching-learning process. It also brings into light the sequence to be followed in the instructional process. (ii) Syntax—The flow of activities in this model is sequential. First of all the objectives to be followed are fixed in accordance with Bloom’s Taxonomy. Then the potentiality of the learners in terms of their entry behavior is assessed. Thereafter in the light of the entry

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behaviour, instructional work is carried out for the achievement of stipulated objectives. Performance assessment is the last phase. (iii) Principles of Reactions—Main Principles of Reactions are summarized below : (a) Principle of Interdependence—The student’s response are to be understood and deal within the light of the inter-action and interdependence process and assessment. (b) Principle of Active Involvement—It proper execution requires a lot of activity on the part of the teacher. At every stage the teacher is expected to develop proper understanding of the potential and difficulties of his students for achieving the objectives. (c) Principles of Follow Up—In case the results are not in accordance with the set objectives, gaps and deficiencies have to be found out and corrective measures taken. (iv) Social System—The success of this model depends upon the ability and competency of the teacher in terms of various skills like formulation of objectives, use of proper strategies, techniques of evaluation etc. (v) Support System—The model for its success needs additional support in terms of (a) Availability of adequate pre-service and inservice facilities to teachers to acquire needed competencies and skills for the use of the model, (b) Availability of desirable teaching learning environment and situation for the use of suitable teaching strategies and (c) Availability of appropriate evaluation device for the assessment of entry and terminal behaviour of the learners. Applicability of the Model—Being quite systematic and structured, this model is applicable to almost all learning-teaching situations. Glaser’s model indicates that teaching includes a wide range

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of decision and practices and much of which requires little or no personal contact between the teacher and students. It implies a personal contact between the teacher and students. It implies a greater emphasis on the competency of the teacher than on his personality.

4.3. Concept Attainment Model of Teaching The concept attainment model belongs to the category of information processing models. The term Concept Attainment Model is historically linked with the work of Jerome S. Bruner and his associates. It was developed in 1956 by Bruner, Goodnow and Austin. This Model is intended to teach specific concepts by comparing and contrasting examples that contain the concept with examples that do not contain the concept. It is built up from Bruner’s work on the cognitive activity called categorizing. He is of the opinion that categorizing helps to reduce the complexity of environment and necessity for concept learning. Categorizing activity has two components: the act of concept formation and the act of concept attainment. Concept formation is the act by which new categories are formed while in Concept attainment, the concept is determined in advance, and the task is to determine the concept on the basis of exemplars and non-exemplars. Purpose of the Concept Attainment Model: Followings are the purpose of Concept Attainment Model— (i) To understand the nature of concepts. (ii) To acquire a new concept. (iii) To enrich and clarify known concepts. (iv) To develop an awareness of thinking strategies. (v) To be more effective in attaining concepts. (vi) To teach specific concepts. (vii) To become more aware of conceptualizing activity and to employ it with unorganised data.

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Elements of a Concept: Followings are the six main elements of a concept i.e. name, essential attributes, non-essential attributes, positive exemplars, negative exemplars and rule. 1. Positive Exemplars—Bruner used the term exemplar to indicate the array of all instances of the concept. Those instances that contain all the critical attributes are called positive exemplars. 2. Negative Exemplars—The absence of one or more essential attributes makes an instance a negative exemplar of the concept. 3. Rule—It is a statement specifying the attributes of a concept. A rule or definition is a device for summarising the findings of the search for attributes. A correct rule statement merely reflects successful utilisation of the other elements of a concept. 4. Name—The name is the term or label given to a category. “Mango” “Circle”, “Congress” are all names given to a range of experiences, objects, configuration or process. As Concept Attainment Model is an inductive model, it proceeds from specific to general, the name must be written first. 5. Essential Attributes—The common features or characteristics that cause to place dissimilar items in the same category are called essential attributes. It is also called criteria or critical attributes. It helps pupils to distinguish between the exemplars and non-exemplars of the concept. 6. Non-Essential Attributes—Some of the slight difference among items in a category are called non-essential attributes. The task of learning a new concept is made more difficult by the presence of many non-essential attributes. Elements of Concept Attainment Model : The main elements of the concept attainment model are as: 1. Focus—The main focus of this model to develop inductive reasoning of the students. A number of examples are presented before the students in order to draw the general conclusion to form a particular concept.

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2. Syntax—The whole interaction process which takes place between the teacher, curriculum and the students occurs during the syntax phase. As the teacher enters into the classroom, he gives detailed information to the students about the different activities that will go on during their attainment of concept. He gives them all types of instructions that how you will perform different activities in order to gain the concept. After that the teacher says, I have a concept in my mind you have to guess about it. He presents data in the form of examples (Yes and No type) before the students. For example; Mango-Yes; Potato-No. As the teacher has done an action, the students have now to react to these examples by forming different hypothesis or guesses according to their mental level. Some students guess that the concept is about five letter words, some about vitamin ‘A’, some about the fruits etc. As the students guessed about different concepts, now the teacher reacts to their responses in the form of more examples instead of that they have not achieved the concept at simplest level, if not achieved he gives further example like Banana-Yes. Now he compares their hypothesis with this example, only two hypothesis viz. vitamin ‘A’ and fruits stands confirmed and those whose hypothesis have been rejected do not think further. Again he gives example like orange - yes, again it is compared with the hypothesis and now only one stands confirmed i.e., fruits and the students achieve concept by means of their attributes. When they have got the concept, they practice it by giving more examples. Syntax of the model has the following four phases— 1. Presentation of data 2. Analysis of hypothesis: It includes Formation of hypothesis, Teacher reaction and Rejection or confirmation of hypothesis. 3. Closure 4. Practice Now let’s try to understand the Syntax of the Reception Model of Concept Attainment and the Syntax of the Selection Model of Concept Attainment in detail.

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A. Syntax of the Reception Model of Concept Attainment: Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Presentation of data and identification of the

Testing the attainment of the concept

Analysis of thinking strategies

• Teacher presents labeled examples.

• Students identify additional un-

• Students describe thoughts.

• Students compare

labelled examples

• Students discuss

attributes of

as ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

role of hypothesis

positive and

• Teacher confirms

and attributes

negative examples.

students hypothesis. • Students discuss

• Students generate

• Teacher names

type and number

and test hypothesis.

the concept.

of hypothesis.

• Students state a

• Teacher restates

• Teacher evaluate

definition according

definition accor-

the strategies.

to the essential

ding to essential

attributes.

attributes.

concept

• Students generate examples. In the first phase of the Reception Model, the teacher presents the positive and negative examples in the pre-determined sequence. This data may be in the form of pictures, anecdotes, sketches, diagrams, events or any other illustrations. The pupils are told that there is one idea common in all the positive examples and that they have to compare and justify the attributes and form some hypothesis about the concept. When the pupils have analysed the examples and hypothesised, teacher ask the students to state a definition according to the essential attributes. In phase two, the teacher presents unlabelled examples and the students identify them as positive or negative. The teacher asks for

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reasons and confirms their hypothesis. When the teacher knows that the students have attained the concept, the teacher names the concept. The teacher does not ask the students to name it because they are not familiar with the name of the concept. Only when the students have already attained the concept, the teacher uses the Model for concept clarification and may ask the students to name the concept. To test the attainment of the concept, the teacher asks the pupils to generate examples and label them as positive or negative instances of the concept. In the third phase of the model, the teacher analyses the thinking strategies employed by the students. The students report their pattern of hypothesizing, whether they focussed on attainment of concept, whether they did so one at a time or several at once and how they changed their hypothesis when it was not confirmed. B. The Syntax Attainment Phase I Presentation of data and identification of attributes • The Teacher presents unlabelled examples. • Students enquire which examples are positive based on the first positive instance given by the teacher . • Students generate and test hypothesis.

of the Selection Model of Concept Phase II Testing attainment of concepts

Phase III Analysis of thinking strategies

• Students identify additional unlabelled examples. • Students generate examples. • Teacher confirms hypothesis, names concept and restates definition. according to essential attributes. strategies.

• Students describe thoughts. • Students discuss the role of hypothesis and attributes. • Students discuss type and number of hypothesis. • Teacher evaluates the

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In the first phase of the Selection Model, the teacher presents the positive and negative examples in the pre-determined sequence. This data may be in the form of pictures, anecdotes, sketches, diagrams, events or any other illustrations. Students enquire which examples are positive based on the first positive instance given by the teacher. The pupils are told that there is one idea common in all the positive examples and that they have to compare and justify the attributes and form some hypothesis about the concept. In second phase students identify additional unlabelled examples. They generate new examples. Teacher confirms hypothesis, names concept and restates definition according to essential attributes. In the third phase of the model, the teacher analyses the thinking strategies employed by the students. The students report their pattern of hypothesizing, whether they focused on attainment of concept, whether they did so one at a time or several at once, and how they changed their hypothesis when it was not confirmed. III. Principle of Reaction—During the interaction between the teacher and the students, the teacher reacts to their every hypothesis in a creative and supportive manner. He tells them to test their hypothesis against the further example which a teacher presents after their guesses. He encourages not only those students whose hypothesis is confirmed but also to those whose hypothesis stands rejected. In this way, a teacher becomes a supportive one to the whole class. As he gives further and further examples his wish is to develop analytical power of the students. Whatever ideas arise from the students mind, he encourages them by explaining the merits of all their hypothesis. IV. Social System—Proper interaction occurs between the teacher and the students during this process. As the teacher selects a particular concept, organizes it into positive and negative examples and sequences the examples, he supplies them additional examples whenever the need arises. He records their hypothesis, provides hints to them and presents additional data in order to attain the concept

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fully. So in this model, the social system of the classroom is moderately structured.Aproper interaction occurs there which makes it socially efficient. V. Support System—The data or content material should be designed in such a way so that the students may easily attain the concepts. It stresses upon to attain concepts and not to invent concepts. The data should be presented in discrete units: Yes or No type and these should directly help the students to form some hypothesis in their minds. When the teacher presents an example before the students, they describe its attributes, which can then be recorded in a column on a blackboard or flash-cards. Thus the teacher should see that his procedure, the aids etc. really become a solid support for the model. VI. Application—This model serves as an evaluation tool to determine whether the learners have mastered the previously learned ideas or concepts. The different concepts like democracy, socialism, capitalism which otherwise are difficult for the learners become easy. The basic concepts of mathematics, social science, science and languages can be effectively taught by this model. It can be used with all ages and grade levels. The curriculum of lower classes mainly consists of concrete concepts and it serves a best tool to attain concepts at lower level with the help of concrete material. Implications of the Concept Attainment Model for Teachers The concept attainment model has a great relevance for teachers who intend to improve the instructional systems. This model has special implications for teachers of languages, mathematics, sciences and some of the social sciences. This model guides teachers to go to the depth of the content to be imparted for exploring various examples and non examples. Merits of the concept attainment model : 1. It is a natural way of teaching and learning. 2. It is helpful in developing the power of imagination of the students.

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3.

It helps in the development of reasoning power of the students. 4. It helps students to analyze things systematically. 5. It helps students actively engaged in the classroom activity. 6. It helps in making the students good observers. 7. It encourages the habit of self study in the students. 8. It helps the learners to apply their knowledge in different situations. 9. It helps the students busy in the classroom work. Limitations of the concept attainment model : The concept attainment model ignores the ‘social interaction’ matrix of the classroom situation. It decries expository teaching.

4.4. Advance Organizer Model The model of Advance Organizer was developed by David Ausubel. It responds to an almost purely information processing theory for meaningful verbal learning. This model is based upon Ausubel’s ideas about subject matter, cognitive structure, active reception learning and advance organizer. According to Ausubel, each discipline has a structure of concepts which form the basis of information processing system of the discipline. He believes that each discipline consists of sets of concepts which are hierarchically organized. The concepts are organized from the simple perceptual to very abstract at the top. All these concepts are linked with each other. Each discipline has its own unique set of concepts. Ausubel like Bruner believes that the structural concepts of each discipline can be identified and taught to the student and they then become an information processing system for him. An intellectual map which can be used to analyze particular domain and to solve problems within those domains of activities. According to him, the main task of the school is to identify the stable and organized bodies of knowledge within the discipline. The most important kind of learning which the

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school can foster is the acquisition of these bodies. The teacher should transmit these stable bodies of knowledge in such a way that the learner will incorporate them meaningfully into his own system and they become his own and function for him. The heart of this system is meaningful verbal learning. The main idea of meaning-fulness refers to connecting the new learning materials with existing ideas in the learner’s cognitive structure. That is we must relate and reconcile what we know and what we are learning. In that case learning is not rot learning. And the learner is not passive, rather active. I. Syntax—The Advance Organizer Model has three phases of activity. Phase one is the presentation of the advance organizer, phase two is the presentation of the learning task or learning material and phase three is the strengthening of cognitive organization. Phase three tests the relationship of the learning material to existing ideas to bring about an active learning processes. The activities are designed to increase the clarity and stability of new learning material so that fever ideas are lost, confused with one another, or left vague. The students should operate on the material as they receive it by relating the new learning material to personal experience and to their existing cognitive structure and by taking a critical stance toward knowledge. Phase one consists of three activities : Clarifying the aims of the lesson, Presenting the advance organizer, Prompting awareness of relevant knowledge. Some important clarifications are needed to understand activities in phase one. The organizer is not just a brief, simple presentation, it is an idea in itself. The actual organizer is built around the major concepts and / or propositions of a discipline or area of study. The organizer has to be constructed so that the learner can perceive it for what it is an idea distinct from and more inclusive than the material in the learning task itself. The organizer must be at a highest level of abstraction and generality than the learning material itself. In phase two lectures,

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discussion films, experiments or reading may provide the learning material which is preceded in the first phase by the advance organizer. Two procedures are there - seeking and maintaining students attention and making the organization of learning material explicit / clear to the students so that they have an overall sense of direction. The purpose of phase three is to anchor (connect) the new learning material in the students existing cognitive structure. This is performed through the execution of four activities— (1) Promoting integrative reconciliation, (2) Promoting active reception learning, (3) Eliciting a principle approach to subject matter, and (4) Clarification. Reconciliation is important in this model : There are several ways to facilitate reconciliation of the new material with the existing cognitive structure. The teacher can : (1) remind students of the ideas (larger picture); (2) ask for a summary of the major attributes of the new learning material; (3) repeat precise definitions; (4) ask for differences between aspects of the material, and (5) ask students to describe how the learning material supports the concept or proposition. Moreover, active learning can be promoted by : I. Asking questions to describe how the new material relates to a single aspect of their existing knowledge. II. Asking students for additional examples of the concepts or propositions in the learning material. III. Asking students to verbalize the essence of the material, using their own terminology and frame of reference. IV. Asking students to examine the material from alternative points of view. V. Relating material to contradictory material, experience or knowledge.

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VI. Translating the new material into a frame of reference that has personal meaning for the student. Syntax of the Advance Organizer Model can be easily sum up in three different phases as given below— 1st Phase Presentation of Advance Organizer Clarify aims the lesson.

2nd Phase Presentation of Learning Task or Material Present material.

Present organizer.

Maintain attention.

Identify defining attributes

Make organization explicit.

Give examples

Make logical order

3rd Phase Strengthening Cognitive Organization Use principles of of integrative reconciliation. Promote active reception learning. Elicit critical approach to subject matter clarity. Clarity.

of learning material Provide context Prompt awareness of learner’s relevant knowledge and experience. II. Social System—The social system of this model is highly structured. The teacher is in fact the initiator and controller of norms. But beyond the presentation of the organizer, the learning situation can become a less structured. The teacher and the students can be very interactive. The teacher retains the control of the intellectual

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structure. It is necessary because he relates the learning material from previous material. This system provides help students differentiate new material from previously learnt material. III. Principles of Reaction—The teacher or the instructional material is the controller in the situations. The teacher may point out the relationship between the organizer and the instructional material that is presented. The control is selected for the learner and the teacher should encourage discussion around the material. The teacher’s solicited or unsolicited responses to the learner’s reactions will be guided by the purpose of clarifying the meaning of the new learning material, differentiating it from it and reconciling it with existing knowledge, making it personally relevant to the student. IV. Support System—Well organized material is critical support. The advance organizer depends on an integral relationship between the conceptual organizer and rest of the content. It may be that it works best as a paradigm around which to build instructional materials so that the time can be taken to ensure complete relevance of content and organizer. However, the model was designed for use in face to face teaching and can be if the time is given to prepare lectures or other types of material carefully, useful in daily teaching.

4.5. Problem Solving Model In 1983, Mayer defined problem solving as a multiple step process where the problem solver must find relationships between past experiences (schema) and the problem at hand and then act upon a solution. Mayer suggested three characteristics of problem solving: (1) Problem solving is cognitive but is inferred from behaviour. (2) Problem solving results in behaviour that leads to a solution. (3) Problem solving is a process that involves manipulation of or operations on previous knowledge.

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One frequently-used model of the problem solving process is shown in figure: This model identifies a basic sequence of three cognitive activities in problem solving : Represent Problem : Representing the problem includes calling up the appropriate context knowledge and identifying the goal and the relevant starting conditions for the problem. Solution Search : Solution search includes refining the goal and developing a plan of action to reach the goal. Implementing Solution : Implementing the Solution includes executing the plan of action and evaluating the results. If the learner recognizes that he or she has solved a similar problem before, then all that’s needed is to recall how it was solved last time and do it again for solving that similar problem. Of course, many problems are too complex to be solved with a single iteration of this process. In these cases, the learner breaks the problem down into intermediate goals and solves each one in turn, using this process. This switching between smaller, intermediate goals and a larger, final goal is an example of a higher order thinking skill called a cognitive strategy. Gagne’s definition of problem solving reflects this principle, and positions problem solving as one kind of higher order thinking skills. He defined problem solving as the “synthesis of other rules and concepts into higher order rules which can be applied to a constrained situation.” Problem solving also includes attitudinal as well as cognitive components. To solve problems, learners have to want to do so and they have to believe they can. Motivation and attitudinal aspects such

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as effort, confidence, anxiety, persistence and knowledge about self are important to the problem solving process. When teaching problem solving, authentic problems in realistic contexts are essential. Learners learn to solve these problems and only after having done so will they be able to see the similarities of strategy across different contexts-and then, only with the right kind of support and structure for their thinking. Principles for teaching problem Solving : 1. Model a useful problem-solving method—Problem solving can be difficult and sometimes tedious. Show students by your example how to be patient and persistent and how to follow a structured method, such as Woods’ model described here. 2. Teach within a specific context—Teach problem-solving skills in the context in which they will be used (e.g., mole fraction calculations in a chemistry course). Use real-life problems in explanations, examples, and exams. Do not teach problem solving as an independent, abstract skill. 3. Help students understand the problem—In order to solve problems, students need to define the end goal. This step is crucial to successful learning of problem-solving skills. If you succeed at helping students answer the questions “what?” and “why?”, finding the answer to “how?” will be easier. 4. Take enough time—When planning a lecture/tutorial,taket enough time for understanding the problem and defining the goal.Make the finding of the questions asked by the students and solve the entire problem in single session. 5. Ask questions and make suggestions—Ask students to predict “what would happen if …” or explain why something happened. This will help them to develop analytical and deductive thinking skills. Also, ask questions and make suggestions about

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strategies to encourage students to reflect on the problem-solving strategies that they use. 6. Link errors to misconceptions—Use errors as evidence of misconceptions, not carelessness or random guessing. Make an effort to isolate the misconception and correct it, then teach students to do this by themselves everyone can learn better from mistakes. Woods’ problem-solving model : Following are the steps of woods problem-solving model— 1. Define the Problem : (i) The system—Have students identify the system under study (e.g., a metal bridge subject to certain forces) by interpreting the information provided in the problem statement. Drawing a diagram is a great way to do this. (ii) Known(s) and Concepts—List what is known about the problem and identify the knowledge needed to understand and solve it. (iii) Unknown(s)—Once you have a list of knowns, identifying the unknown(s) becomes simpler. One unknown is generally the answer to the problem, but there may be other unknowns. Be sure that students understand what they are expected to find. (iv) Units and Symbols—One key aspect in problem solving is teaching students how to select, interpret and use units and symbols. Emphasize the use of units whenever applicable. Develop a habit of using appropriate units and symbols yourself at all times. (v) Constraints—All problems have some stated or implied constraints. Teach students to look for the words only, must, neglect or assume to help identify the constraints. (vi) Criteria for Success—Help students to consider from the beginning what a logical type of answer would be. What characteristics will it possess? For example, a quantitative problem will require an

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answer in some form of numerical units (e.g., $/kg product, square cm, etc.) while an optimization problem requires an answer in the form of either a numerical maximum or minimum. 2. Think about it : (i) Let it simmer—Use this stage to ponder the problem. Ideally, students will develop a mental image of the problem at hand during this stage. (ii) Identify specific pieces of Knowledge—Students need to determine by themselves the required background knowledge from illustrations, examples and problems covered in the course. (iii) Collect Information—Encourage students to collect pertinent information such as conversion factors, constants, and tables needed to solve the problem. 3. Plan a Solution : (i) Consider possible Strategies—Often, the type of solution will be determined by the type of problem. Some common problemsolving strategies are: compute; simplify; use an equation; make a model, diagram, table, or chart; or work backwards. (ii) Choose the best Strategy—Help students to choose the best strategy by reminding them again what they are required to find or calculate. 4. Carry out the Plan : (i) Be patient—Most problems are not solved quickly or on the first attempt. In other cases, executing the solution may be the easiest step. (ii) Be Persistent—If a plan does not work immediately, do not let students get discouraged. Encourage them to try a different strategy and keep trying. 5. Look Back : Encourage students to reflect. Once a solution has been reached,

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students should ask themselves the following questions : (i) Does the answer make sense? (ii) Does it fit with the criteria established in step 1? (iii) Did I answer the question(s)? (iv) What did I learn by doing this? (v) Could I have done the problem another way? Problem Solving: Teaching and Learning Strategies— This traditional transmission model of teaching and learning often does not value true understanding or encourage the creative thinking, flexibility or alternative approaches necessary to meet the challenges of tomorrow. Teaching through problem Solving : A challenging task must offer the chance for alternative approaches to be considered and shared and so will encourage reflection and communication. It is important to understand that in this context the task is not simply an interesting problem but specifically chosen to drive the learning from what is known to what needs to be known. For each task, the pedagogical context needs to be carefully articulated before the task is chosen. In this way learning is intentional rather than haphazard. In effect this is “teaching through problem solving” as opposed to the more traditional “teaching for problem solving”. The intention is that students learn as a result of solving problems. Ideas are the outcomes of the problem solving experience. It is also important to stress that the task must be of interest to the student. The context needs to be considered carefully and it should be presented in a way, which piques their interest and arouses their curiosity. 1. Possible Lesson Structure : The lesson is likely to be centred around one or two problems with a suggested format in line.

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Phase One: Presentation of the Problem : The teacher presents the problem so that students understand and know (i) What is expected of them. The students figure out what the problem is about by reading, listening to (ii) The teacher’s instructions and discussing it amongst themselves. They check what they already know and what they need to learn and begin to develop ideas of how to tackle the problem. Phase Two: Developing a Solution : The students think about the problem and try to find solutions on their own. The teacher purposefully walks around looking at the student’s work making notes and deciding in which order to ask the students to present their ideas in phase three. The teacher in general does not guide the students apart from giving hints to students who cannot make progress. Phase Three : Progress through Discussion The teacher asks three to five students who used different methods to— (i) Explain their approaches to the rest of the class. The teacher remains neutral to the ideas. The students listen to the explanations and try to reach a common. (ii) Understanding of better solutions by discussing the strong and weak points of each approach proposed. Phase Four: Summarising The teacher summarises the group findings and in particular emphasizes (i) The important points addressed in the lesson. The teacher will challenge the students with similar or developmental problems for homework. (ii) The students often write down what they have

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learned in their journals. 2. Assessment : Teaching through assessment was originally intended as a means of evaluating higher order thinking skills, it proved to be an effective method of teaching mathematics to students of all ages and abilities. Their findings suggested that students taught through problem solving did at least as well as students taught in a more traditional way. Consequently we do not feel a traditional style end of course examination will disadvantage our students although we anticipate that awarding organisations will be imaginative in their planned external assessment. We also expect that students will demonstrate other skills such as fluency, flexibility and originality when faced with unfamiliar problems. 3. Continuous Professional Development : The aim of our professional development programme is not only to provide teachers with new frameworks to use as they plan their students’ learning experiences but also to challenge the teacher’s own beliefs about effective teaching. Teachers will be encouraged to form lesson study groups either within their own institution or across institutions as they work together to research teaching materials, develop lesson plans and practise teaching lessons. The underlying principal here is the idea that teachers learn from and improve their practice by watching other teachers teach . In this way the teachers mirror their own students by becoming inquirers themselves and this will become key to sustainability of these approaches to teaching and learning.

4.6. Essential Components of Reading Reading is an astoundingly complex cognitive process. While we often think of reading as one singular act, our brains are actually

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engaging in a number of tasks simultaneously each time we sit down with a book. There are five aspects to the process of reading: phonics, phonemic awareness, vocabulary, reading comprehension and fluency. These five aspects work together to create the reading experience. As children learn to read they must develop skills in all five of these areas in order to become successful readers.

4.6.1. Phonemic Awareness  Phonemic awareness is closely related to phonics because both involve the connection between sounds and words. While phonics is the connection between sounds and letters, phonemic awareness is the understanding that words are created from phonemes (small units of sound in language). These may seem like the same thing, but there is a subtle difference in the two. Phonics is used only in written language because it involves letters. Phonemes are sounds only. While they can be represented using letters, they can also be simply the auditory sounds of words. Phonemes are most often learned before a child begins to read because they are centered on the sounds of language rather than written words. Just like phonics, phonemic awareness can be taught and used in a number of ways. Phoneme isolation involves the reader parsing out the individual sounds in a word in order to determine its meaning. Similarly, phoneme segmentation asks the reader to break words into their corresponding phonemes (which may involve one or more individual sounds) to figure out the new word. Both of these approaches are very similar to synthetic phonics. Phoneme identification relies on the reader’s general knowledge of phonemes (usually developed through speaking) to identify sound patterns in words. For example a reader would identify the phoneme /d/ he knows from the words “dog” and “dad” to help him learn how to read a new word “doctor”. Finally,

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phoneme blending requires the reader to connect a series of phonemes together to create a word. This strategy is always used in conjunction with one of the others.

4.6.2. Phonics  Phonics is the connection between sounds and letter symbols. It is also the combination of these sound-symbol connections to create words. Without phonics, words are simply a bunch of squiggles and lines on a page. If you think about it, letters are arbitrary. There is nothing innately bed-like about the written word “bed”. It is simply the collection of letters and corresponding sounds that we agree constitute the word “bed”. Learning to make that connection between the individual sounds that each letter represents and then putting those together is essential to understanding what that funny squiggle means. There are a number of ways that phonics can be taught because there is a variety of ways to apply this aspect when reading. Each approach allows the reader to use phonics to read and learn new words in a different way. Synthetic phonics builds words from the ground up. In this approach readers are taught to first connect letters to their corresponding phonemes (sound units) and then to blend those together to create a word. Analytic phonics, on the other hand, approaches words from the top down. A word is identified as a whole unit and then its letter-sound connections are parsed out. Analogy phonics uses familiar parts of words to discover new words. Finally, phonics through spelling focuses on connecting sounds with letters in writing. All of these approaches can be taught and used independently or in combination to help young readers learn to identify new words.

4.6.3. Fluency  Fluency is a reader’s ability to read with speed, accuracy and expression. Thus it requires him to combine and use multiple reading

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skills at the same time. While fluency is most often measured through oral readings, good readers also exhibit this skill when they are reading silently. Think about the way a book “sounds” in your mind when you are reading silently. You “hear” the characters “speak” with expression. Even passages that are not written in dialogue “sound” as if the words fit the meaning. A particularly suspenseful action sequence moves quickly through your mind creating a palpable sense of tension. Your ability to move through a piece of text at a fluid pace while evoking the meaning and feeling of it demonstrates your fluency. Fluency is intimately tied to comprehension. A reader must be able to move quickly enough through a text to develop meaning. If he is bogged down reading each individual word, he is not able to create an overall picture in his mind of what the text is saying. Even if the reader is able to move rapidly through a text, if she cannot master the expression associated with the words, the meaning of it will be lost.

4.6.4. Vocabulary In order to read words we must first know them. Imagine how frustrating and fruitless it would be to read this article if all of the words were unfamiliar to you. As children become stronger, more advanced readers they not only learn to connect their oral vocabularies (the words we know when they are spoken) to their reading vocabularies (the words we know when they are used in print) they also strengthen each of these areas by adding new words to their repertoires. Vocabulary development is an ongoing process that continues throughout one’s “reading life”. There are two primary ways of teaching and learning new vocabulary words. The first is explicit instruction. This involves someone telling you how a word is pronounced and what its meaning is. That “someone” might be a teacher, a dictionary, a vocabulary

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guide or any other resource offering definitions and pronunciations. Context clues provide another method for discovering new words. Context clues are the “hints” contained in a text that help a reader figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. They include other words in a sentence or paragraph, text features (ie. bold print, italics), illustrations, graphs and charts. Context clues are basically any item in the text that points to the definition of a new word.

4.6.5. Reading Comprehension  Comprehension is what most people think reading is. This is because comprehension is the main reason why we read. It is the aspect of reading that all of the others serve to create. Reading comprehension is understanding what a text is all about. It is more than just understanding words in isolation. It is putting them together and using prior knowledge to develop meaning. Reading comprehension is the most complex aspect of reading. It not only involves all of the other four aspects of reading, it also requires the reader to draw upon general thinking skills. When a reader is actively engaged with a text, she is asking and answering questions about the story and summarizing what she has read. Like vocabulary, reading comprehension skills develop and improve over time through instruction and practice.

EXERCISE Long Answer Type Questions 1.

2.

What do you Understand by Term Model of Teaching ? Throw Light on their Nature and Characteristics. Describe the various models of teaching.

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Describe in brief the Elements of Teaching Model. Throw Light on the Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model. Write the different functions of a model teaching. Discuss the characteristics of model of teaching. What is the need of teaching model?

Short Answer Type Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Write about the concept of model of Teaching. Describe two definitions of model of teaching. Model of Teaching. Point out the Elements of a Teaching Model. Write down Three Things about the Nature and Characteristics of Teaching Models. Describe the sources of model of Teaching. What is Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model ?

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Instructional Approaches for Developing Students : Concepts of Grammar, Punctuation, Spelling and Handwriting

5.1. Concepts of Grammar Grammar is the sound, structure, and meaning system of language. All languages have grammar and each language has its own grammar. Effective grammar instruction begins with what students already know about grammar and it helps them use this knowledge as they write. By connecting their knowledge of oral language to written language, teachers can demystify abstract grammatical terminology so that students can write—and read—with greater competence and confidence. Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe grammar as the “rules” of a language; but in fact no language has rules. If we use the word “rules”, we suggest that somebody created the rules first and then spoke the language, like a new game. But languages did not start like that. Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken languageisfixed.Alllanguageschangeovertime.Whatwecall“grammar” is simply a reflection of a language at a particular time. Grammar is the mental system of rules and categories that allows humans to form and interpret the words and sentences of their language. (a) What is Grammar ? The word ‘‘grammar” means different things to different people. To the ordinary citizen, it connotes “correct or incorrect English”. To a school student, it means “an analytical and terminological study of sentences.” To a linguist, it means “the total set of signals by which a given language expresses meaning” or the total structure of a language. Language is a mark of dignity in the evolution of man. The communication is switched over to listening and speaking with emergence of language. Before it, human beings communicated with signs and 183

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cries. The man started reading and writing, then printing and today... with hi-tech computers, language has become a tool which is essential for every human activity. Now what is the place of grammar in a language? In fact, grammar is the ‘theory of language’. It’s the study of the organisation of words into sentences. Plato and his disciple Aristotle, enjoyed the credit of analyzing this aspect of the language. The first Latin grammar was written on the model of the Greek grammar. This grammar inspired and motivated the scholars all over the world and became the basis of English’grammar. The meaning of the term ‘Grammar’has been given differently by different people. To some it is something that helps in learning a language. To other it is a body of rules and regulations of a language. It is also described as a descriptive science which describes the structure of sentences, function of words and their relation to one another. Every language has its own grammar and it is important because a language should be intelligible or otherwise it loses its sense. There are various approaches to study grammar but before discussing them, let us have a look at what does grammar actually mean and how can it be defined. Grammar is the science of language. It is the study of sentences analytically and terminologically. Experts have tried to define it in various ways. There are as follows: According to Thompson and Wyatt, “Grammar presents the facts of language, arranged under certain categories and deals only with what can be brought under general laws and stated in the form of general rules.” In the words of Dr. Sweet, “Grammar is the practical analysis of a language, its anatomy.” So, it deals with the function of words in a sentence and explains its structural details. It clarifies general rules of syntax or sentenceconstructions... i.e. the word-order, agreement of the subject and the verb, sequence of tenses, etc. It throws light on the language structure and facilitate correct language learning.

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Dr. West has unique approach to it. He says, “Grammar is not a code of rules, it is, like etiquette and table manners, a statement of convention; it summarizes what is done by cultured people and like etiquette it is in a state of constant change.” —According to Gordon, ‘‘Grammar is a body of empirical rules which explain and regulate the structures of the sentence.’’ —According to Chomsky, “it is simply a system of rules that in some explicit and well defined way assign structural descriptions to sentences.” —Champion says, “Grammar is a study of language by specialists, made in order to establish the rules and principles which are followed more or less unconsciously or instinctively by the native speakers.” —According to A.S. HornbyAdvanced Learner’s Dictionary, “Grammar is the study or science of rules for the words and structures of a language.” The different definitions of grammar show that it is nothing but a sum total of rules and regulations of the language. (b) Present Position of Grammar in the Schools The present position of grammar in the schools is rather pitiable. Mostly grammar is taught or learnt just for the sake of grammar. Very few people learn it for the sake of language. In the time-table, there is separate period for grammar work. Everybody looks upon grammar from examination point of view. The target of every body is getting more marks in the portion of grammar contained in the question paper. No body takes it as a helping hand for the importance of language. Further, it is seen that separate grammar books are prescribed for the different classes from the beginning. Thus, almost every student studies grammar of the language in each class. The emphasis is on learning the definitions. The learners cram the material and then they reproduce it in the examination. They least worry about the real utility of the language. (c) Expected Role of Grammar The expected role of grammar is that it should assist in learning the language. It should be a means to achieve the goal. The goal is to learn

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the language. It should not be allowed to become an end in itself.At the early stages of language learning, the children should be enabled to learn the language straight way.They should be given practice of listening, speaking, reading and writing. A good deal of practice is needed for every learner. Only practice will help him in learning the language well. At the initial stages the study of grammar is only a stumbling block in learning the language. Let the child learn the language in a natural way. Grammar should be introduced after two, three years of learning the language. By that time, the learner can use grammar as a tool. It is very important to note that the entire language cannot come under rules. Palmer rightly says that only one tenth of English follows any rules. Let language be taken up first and then the study of grammar be introduced. Thus, the knowledge of grammar acquired side by side will be of great help. The ability to use language correctly is more important than the ability to name parts of speech. It is doubtful whether the knowledge of grammar alone helps a person to speak or write correct English. Kittson in his book ‘Language Teaching’says, “The notion that the grammatical mistakes made by a learner are due to the lack of grammatical knowledge, is wholly false. This is often furiously illustrated in examination where a candidate will not infrequently, gain marks in one section of the paper by stating a grammatical rule correctly and a little further on breaking the same rule in his composition.” Prof. Billows says, “The teacher must have a clear idea of the grammar of the language, its structure and usage. Everything he teaches must be based on it. He would always be conscious of introducing or practising some point of grammar.” In the words of A. W. Frisby, “Grammar must always follow. It must be behind reading and writing.”

5.1.1. Salient Features of Grammar Some peculiar features are enlisted below on the basis of above definitions : 1. Grammar is not merely a set of rules, it is, like etiquette and table manners of speaking and writing a language.

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2. Grammar gives an account of the code rules, facts and peculiarities, arranged in certain categories and stated in the form of general rules. 3. Grammar involves three areas: (i) The set of formal pattern for arranging words of a language. (ii) A branch of linguistic science and analytical aspect of a language. (iii) A linguistic etiquette or norm. 4. Grammar is a major component of language which establishes the relationship between words. 5. Every language has its own set of rules called grammar. 6. It is the ‘theory’ of the language. 7. A language is comprised of meaning, arrangement of words and sentences through grammar. 8. English language is constructed having Latin grammar at its base. 9. Grammar involves the study of organization of words into sentences based on certain rules. 10. Grammar is the exploration of characteristics and peculiarities of a language to establish rules and principles.

5.1.2. Aims & Objective of Teaching Grammar The aim of teaching grammar should be to make pupils think scientifically about language.There is difference between a grammarian’s study of grammar and a school boy’s. The school boy studies it only for the light it throws on sentence structure.The grammarian’s aim is scientific while the aim of a school boy is mainly utilitarian. One of the main aims is to enable the student to speak grammatically correct sentences. The knowledge of the grammar should begin with sentence and not with the word. The knowledge of grammar should enable the students to correlate speech, in which the sentence is a unitary whole, with reading. ² To enable the pupils to develop their understanding about the rules of English grammar through use and practice of its structures. ² To develop their mental abilities of reasoning and correct observation.

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² To enable the students to assimilate the correct patterns of the

language without rote memorization. ² To develop students’ insight into the structures of English language. ² To develop a scientific attitude towards the language. ² To enable the pupils to express their ideas logically and correctly in speech and writing. ² To teach grammar as a rule-governed behaviour and not as mere rote learning.

5.1.3. Types of Grammar There are two types of grammar — prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar. 1. Transformation-Generative Grammar—This is new and developing type of grammar. This type suggests two types of sentences: (i) Basic Sentences and (ii) Transformed Sentences. Transformed sentences are derived from the basic sentences whereas the basic ones can’t be derived from the transformed, e.g. I am a boy (Basic Sentence) and Am I a boy? or I am not a boy. (Transformed Sentences) 2. Prescriptive Grammar—Prescriptive grammar is the old traditional type of grammar that prescribes rules for the use of the language. It tries to perform the legislative function for the language so that any departure from the rules is not allowed. Here the grammarians go wrong because they forget that language is ever changing and ever growing. Modern English usage has developed beyond the rules of grammar. Grammar cannot cry halt to the progress of language. The only basis for correctness in a language is the usage of its native speakers. There is a funny incident of a school teacher in America, who was teaching the students to say : “It’s I” and not “It’s me.” At that time, the Principal knocked at the door. “It’s me, Principal,” the teacher said.

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3. Descriptive Grammar—Descriptive grammar describes the behaviour of the language—the way the language is actually used by the native speakers. It takes into account the fact that language is growing and any change in the usage is to be taken note of. Descriptive grammar, too, becomes prescriptive in a sense that it has its own rules but the only difference between it and prescriptive grammar is that unlike prescriptive grammar which shuts its door against any new usage, descriptive grammar takes note of it. So in schools, we should teach descriptive grammar. D.S. Gordon is worth quoting on this point. He says, “Formerly it was thought that a grammar book laid down the rules which a language had to obey. In other words, the function of grammar was thought to be, not to describe what is, but to tell people what ought to be. In this manner, grammarians were thought to be law-givers, and just as a good dictionary is the final arbiter of correct spelling, so also a good grammar book was supposed to be the final judge of correctness in language. This legislative conception of grammar worked well, in the case of dead languages where what was once right is bound to be right for all time, but in the case of a living language like English, it is out of place.Aliving language will grow and develop in its own way in spite of all the grammarians may say. So here a grammar book cannot be regarded as a code of unchangeable laws ; it can only be a scientific description of the facts of a language as it was spoken and written by the best people at the time the book was composed. Grammar is, thus, a servant of language, not its master ; and grammarians are not law-givers. They are only observers and recorders of usage. English is not only a living language ; it is a language full of life. Its usage changes as the people who speak it as their mother tongue, wish it to change. Nobody can oppose that change. It is the grammar that must change to suit the changes in the language.” Grammar is also classified as Functional Grammar and Formal Grammar. 4. Functional Grammar—Functional grammar is incidental grammar which is acquired by the pupils unconsciously by imitation or

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consciously by observation and deduction. In the very process of learning correct sentence patterns, the pupil is learning grammar. This ‘disguised’and unformulated grammar is called functional grammar. It is the grammar that functions in correct speech. This is G1. It gives the pupil the ability to speak and write correctly. At least for the first two years of the teaching of English, the child should be taught this type of grammar. 5. Formal Grammar—Formal or theoretical grammar deals with terminology, definitions or rules. It concerns itself with the description, analysis and formulization of formal language patterns. It offers a systematic classification of all the language forms. This is G2. Its study enables the pupil to describe the language. Its study cannot be dispensed with but it should be commenced after at least two years of teaching of language. 6. ScholarlyTraditional Grammar—The scholars of universities framed this grammar after extensive research. Various bibliographic references, critical evaluation of ancient works and thorough documentation by citation from English literature are some of its peculiarities. But this grammar lacks regularity due to much diversity of information. This is least beneficial to pupils as historical account dominates here. 7 . Structural Grammar—C.C. Fries proposed this type of grammar. He was an American linguist and we know that American approach to language is utilitarian, not conventional. So, this grammar emphasizes sentence structures. In fact descriptive grammar gets motivation from this type. But being new and developing type of grammar, this is not a complete system. Out of these five types, the most popular now a days are: the formal grammar and functional grammar.All old and Govt. schools with mother tongue as their medium prefer formal one while the public and English medium schools emphasise functional grammar. Now what is the difference between the two? Let us have a look at it.

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5.1.4. Difference between Formal and Functional Grammar Formal Grammar 1. Rules of grammar are consciously memorized by the pupils. 2. It is less helpful to pupils, being theoretical. 3. It encourage rote memorization of theory of language. 4. Every teacher can teach it just by cramming rules. 5. As most of the things are just dictated without any utility, it results in passive learning by pupils. 6. Being a part of rote memory most of the rules are forgotten by pupils in the long run. 7. It places high burden on pupils’ mind due to excessive use of memory. 8. The practice is ignored due to bulky rules and peculiarities. 9. The students are taught each and every rule related to grammar whether useful or not. 10. It is also known as traditional or theoretical grammar. 11. It does not take into account the functional utility. 12. Rules and forms of grammar are overemphasized. 13. As it emphasizes rule and theoretical aspect only, so it follows deductive approach, i.e., teaching rules and definitions first followed by examples. 14. This is just a mental exercise in which most of the things are abstract. 15. Being taught formally, it proves to be difficult and monotonous. Functional Grammar 1. As incidental teaching is there, even pupils don’t know how quickly it becomes a part of their own language. There is no burden at all on them. 2. Much practice is provided to pupils and only practice makes a man perfect. 3. Here students are taught only useful sentence patterns, nothing more than that.

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4. 5. 6. 7.

It is known as descriptive grammar. Here only functional utility in daily life is taken into account. Only practical and useful aspects are taught. Being functional in nature this type follows inductive approach, i.e. first giving examples and then inducing rules or generalisations from them. 8. Functional grammar is of concrete nature due to its immediate applicability in speech, reading and writing. 9. Being taught incidently in an informal way, so it proves to be interesting resulting in automatic learning. 10. Grammar rules are not memorized but acquired through imitation and practice. 11. It is highly useful, being practical. 12. It results in natural acquisition of correct patterns of language without the help of rote memory. 13. Its teacher should be an expert having full insight into the grammar. 14. Being inductive in approach, pupils play major role in drawing generalizations. So, it results in active learning by them. 15. Its effect is long lasting due to its frequent use in daily life. This comparison is an evidence why modern experts support teaching of ‘Functional Grammar’. It has high practical value the reason being, “It is the grammar learnt in speech or in the study of the reader and of the formal text. A good deal of grammar is absorbed in this way unconsciously by imitation by the pupil. He begins to speak correct sentences without having been told the rules of grammar.” But some scholars strongly oppose the use of this approach in Indian classes particularly. ,’

5.1.5. Advanatages and Limitations of Teaching Grammar (A) Advanatages of Teaching Grammar According to LA. Gordon Adnuts, “Language is the vehicle of our thoughts and feelings and of our stories^ whether true or not and grammar is the machinery by which that vehicle is set in motion.”

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Following are some advantages of teaching grammar: 1. Grammar is like a skeleton to the body of a language. A body can’t stand in the absence of skeleton. 2. Grammar is essential for thorough knowledge of the nature and theory of a language. 3. It gives systematic knowledge of language. 4. Through grammar to language, we proceed from concrete to abstract. 5. Grammar helps in correct language learning. 6. It provides a criteria to evaluate the correctness of a language. 7. It explains the various structures and basic sentence patterns of English in detail. 8. Knowledge of grammar gives logic and reason to clear any doubt or confusion. 9. It is essential for correct expression in a language. 10. Guessing, on the part of the students, is controlled by the knowledge of grammar. 11. It provides scientific base to the language. 12. The knowledge of grammar checks entry of vagueness in the language learning. 13. All grammatical items must be taught to pupils for complete knowledge of a language because a little knowledge is a dangerous thing. 14. Language is a logical and complex system in an orderly manner only due to grammar. (B) Limitations of Teaching Grammar The scholars today prefer the natural learning of a language through the use and practice rather than memorizing the grammatical items and rules merely. The teaching of grammar is criticized due to the following reasons: 1. It places extra burden on pupil’s memory and it results in passive mastery over language.

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2. An expert is required to teach grammar effectively. An incompetent teacher rather spoils pupil’s basic knowledge by teaching grammar ineffectively. 3. Palmer says, “It actually hinders the spontaneous learning of a foreign language.” 4. It teaches language in a concrete manner while actually language is abstract as emotions, expressions are involved. 5. Thought and expression have no place in grammar and these are the fundamental things to acquire fluency in a language. 6. It does not facilitate the fluent speech and the writing ability of the pupils. 7. The common errors are not necessarily related to grammar. Kittson says, “The notion of the grammatical mistake made by the learner are due to the lack of grammatical knowledge, is wholly false; this is often curiously illustrated in examinations where a candidate will frequently gain marks in one section of the paper by stating a grammatical rule correctly and a little later he breaks the same rule in his composition.” 8. It gives only partial knowledge about the language. Grammar has nothing to do with proverbs, idioms, phrases, fluency, phonetics, vocabulary, dialogue and speech. Following scholars have criticized the teaching of grammar. Jesperson views are, “Grammar is a set of stiff dogmatic percepts, according to which some things are correct and others absolutely wrong.” While P. Gurrey criticizes as, “In secondary schools, the use of parsing (religious teaching) and full analysis is a waste of time compared to the effectiveness of many other exercises.” And Halliday admits, “Much of English grammar taught within the old method was pedantic, or archaic even erroneous.” But whatever we say about teaching grammar, one thing is sure, it is a necessary evil to learn a language.

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5.1.6. Methods of Teaching Grammar I. Inductive Approach II. Deductive Approach I. Inductive Method One way of teaching grammar is that examples are given to the students. Out of the examples, the rules are induced. This approach is called inductive. For example, the teacher tells sentences like — I go to Delhi. We go to Delhi. You go to Delhi. They go to Delhi. He goes to Delhi. She goes to Delhi. — The students also frame sentences of similar type. — Mohan writes a letter. I write a letter. You sing a song. — Then they are able to induce rules i.e. in such sentences first form of verb is used with I, we, you, they and s or es is used with the verb in case of he, she etc. P.C. Wren says, “Teach grammar inductively. Teach English as you would by actions and practice. The rules show themselves in both and need not be learnt first. Nor need a boy be able to define a football or a cricket bat before he can use one.” Objectives of Inductive Approach (i) To weld thought with expression. (ii) To create derived linguistic skills in the pupils i.e. reading, writing, speaking and understanding. (iii) To provide ample opportunity for pattern practice. Advantages of Inductive Approach 1. It breaks the monotony in the classrooms by making teaching more interesting through situational teaching and performing actions. 2. It lays emphasis on the teaching of functional grammar. 3. There is enough pattern practice which ultimately leads to incidental learning. Limitations of the Approach 1. It requires competence on the part of the teacher teaching English by using this approach. 2. It consumes a little more to teach particular grammatical concepts as compared to teaching through grammar translation method.

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II. Deductive Method In Deductive method, the teacher tells the rules to the students and they apply those rules in different situations of language learning. For example, the teacher tells that in present indefinite tense, Ist form of the verb is used with I, we, you and they.And with he, she, it we use Ist form of verb +9 or es. (a) I write a letter every day. (Ist form of verb). (b) We speak the truth. (c) ‘You play a match in the evening. (d) They like my habits. Ist form of verb +s or es (i) He likes hard working boys, (ii) She smiles in the class, (iii) It rains heavily in summer. Those who teach by this approach do not realize the necessity of associating thought with expression. Here stress is laid on the teaching of formal grammar. Advantages of Deductive Approach 1. This approach saves a good deal of time of the teacher. 2. It makes the teaching an easy going job. Limitations of Deductive Approach 1. It ignores ‘oral aspect’ of the language. 2. It does not help in giving enough pattern practice. 3. It does not provide any synthesis between thought and expression. 4. It is uninteresting and creates a monotonous situation in the classroom. Criticism of the Approach : This approach has been criticized by some scholars due to the following demerits : · Oral aspect is ignored. · It does not give enough pattern practice. · It is only applicable at an early stage. · This method is not complete in itself.

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But the merits of this approach have made it the most successful approach of teaching grammar. Some scholars have advised that grammar should be taught informally at the early stage, with the inductive and deductive approach and incidental method at the middle stages and with the traditional method at the higher stage. Relationship of deductive and Inductive approaches : Deductive Approach Learn the rule in the context of formal instruction. Know about the rule. Learn the rule consciously. Learn the rule explicitely. Inductive Approach Learn the ruel as a child acquires her/his first or second language ‘‘Pick up’’ the rule. Learn the rule subconsciously. Learn the rule implicitely. Suggestions for Successful Teaching of Grammar 1. Principle of motivation and feedback should be strictly followed. 2. Grammar should be taught through language, not language through grammar. 3. The teacher should avoid abstract statements of a grammatical ‘principle as pupils find it confusing. 4. Proper attention should be paid on meaning of the structure rather on grammatical points unless they are interfering in the communication of meaning. 5. Grammar should be taught through logic and reasoning. It should not be taught as an intellectual exercise involving rote memory. 6. Functional grammar should be preferred for early stages and formal one for the later stages. 7. The pupils should learn it by use so that it improves their basic skills. 8. `The teacher should introduce an inquiring approach to enable pupils analyse grammar at their own level.

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9. The material should be taken from the text book which should be well selected and graded. 10. The teacher should choose the method keeping in mind the mental age and needs of pupil. 11. The strategy should be based on the type and complexity of the task. 12. The lesson should be well planned according to the method followed. 13. Audio visual aids, pictures, flash cards, gestures and live activities should be a part of the teaching strategy. 14. Immediate feedback and correction work should be taken care of. 15. Enough practice in spoken and written work is must. 16. Its study should be in correlation to the lessons of reader and daily life of pupils. 17. In early stages, a separate grammar book is not recommended. The pupils should learn grammar informally and incidentally. 18. And last thing is that for evaluation, the objective type tests should be preferred. It should be in the form of exercises. “The study of grammar brings into relief and fixes in the pupils mind a standard of accurate usage, fortifies him against the influence of bad examples by making clear the wrong forms and faulty constructions and thus making clear to the senders his limitation of what is correct, more certain, rapid and intelligent.” We can conclude with the words of McGregor, “If we are to teach the grammar of English realistically and truthfully, then we must, as soon as possible, help our pupils to understand the concept of ‘idiom in language’ because all languages are different in the total means which they employ to convey meaning.”

5.2. Concept of Punctuation Punctuation is the set of marks used to regulate texts and clarify their meanings, principally by separating or linking words, phrases,

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and clauses. Marks of punctuation include  ampersands,  apostrophes, asterisks,  brackets, bullets, colons, commas, dashes, diacritic marks, ellipsis, exclamation points, hyphens, paragraph breaks, parentheses, periods, question marks, quotation marks, semicolons, slashes, spacing and strike-throughs. These rules govern the use of punctuation, the use of spacing, conventional signs and certain typographic devices as aids to the understanding and correct reading of text. The fundamental rule Use as little punctuation as necessary while retaining the meaning of the sentence. (i) Apostrophes Use “‘s” after singular nouns, plural nouns which do not end in “s” and indefinite pronouns to indicate possession. Use just and apostrophe after plural nouns ending in “s”. If a name already ends in “s” or “z” and would be difficult to pronounce if “‘s” were added to the end, consider rearranging the sentence to avoid the difficulty. In compound nouns and where multiple nouns are linked to make one concept, place the apostrophe at the end of the final part (and match it to that noun). Do not use an apostrophe in its with the meaning “belonging to it”. Use apostrophes with noun phrases denoting period of time, but do not use an apostrophe in adjectival phrases. Use an apostrophe in the position letters have been omitted in a contraction, not where the space was between the original words. Do not use an apostrophe before contractions accepted as words in their own right. Do not use an apostrophe to make a plural, even with a word/phrase that is not usually written in the plural or which appears clunky. (ii) Brackets (a) Round brackets Avoid the use of round brackets as much as possible. In sentences with parenthetical statements - like this one - use dashes instead of round brackets.

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Use round brackets when you need to provide an expansion or clarification rather than an aside. You should also use round brackets when using an acronym for the first time to define it. Include full stops/exclamation marks/question marks/quotation marks before the close bracket only if the complete sentence/quote is in brackets. Otherwise, punctuate after the closing bracket. (b) Square brackets Use only to enclose comments, corrections, reference or translations made by a subsequent author or editor. (c) Angle brackets These are used only for technical purposes - only use them if you are sure they are appropriate. Never use them in any other contexts. (d) Bullet points Bulleted lists follow a colon. If the sentence before the colon and the bullets after it form a continuous sentence, each line should start with a lower-case letter and there should be no full stops, colons or semi colons. If the bullets do not follow on in a continuous sentence, each line should start with an upper-case letter and there should be no full stops, colons or semicolons. (iii) Colons and Semicolons Avoid the use of colons and semicolons wherever possible. It is preferable to rewrite a sentence if a semicolon is needed. However, there are situations in which they are required, and meaning would be lost if the sentence were restructured. Use a colon to introduce a subclause which follows logically from the text before it, is not a new concept and depends logically on the preceding main clause. Do not use a colon if the two parts of the sentence are not logically connected. Use a semicolon to link two related parts of a sentence, neither of which depends logically on the other and each of which could stand alone as a grammatically complete sentence.

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Use semicolons in place of commas in a complicated list or sentence if it will improve clarity, particularly if list items already include commas. (iv) Commas Use a pair of commas to surround a non-defining clause (one which adds descriptive information but which can be removed without losing the meaning of the sentence) – note that only “which” or “who” can be used in this type of clause, not “that”. Do not use commas to surround a defining clause (which cannot be removed without losing the meaning of the sentence) – note that “which” or “who” can be replaced by “that” in this type of clause. Use commas to surround a non-defining word or phrase (which adds information but could be omitted without changing the sense of the sentence) and follow the non-defining word/phrase with a single comma if it is at the start of the sentence. Do not use a comma where defining information is used at the start of a sentence. Do not use a comma to join two main clauses or those linked by adverbs or adverbial phrases (eg “nevertheless”, “therefore”, “however”). This is sometimes referred to as “comma splicing”. Either use a semicolon or add a coordinating conjunction (eg “and”, “but”, “so”). Use a comma after an introductory adverb, adverbial phrase or subordinate clause, or use a pair of commas surrounding it if it is in the middle of a sentence. Do not use a comma after a time-based adverbial phrase. Use a comma between multiple qualitative adjectives (those which can be used in the comparative/superlative or modified with “very”, “quite” etc). Do not use a comma between multiple classifying adjectives: absolutes which either are or are not, such as “unique”, “English”, “black” etc (although note that stylistically these can be modified). Do not use a comma between classifying and qualitative adjectives. Use a comma between items in a list.

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There is no comma between the penultimate item in a list and “and”/”or” unless required to prevent ambiguity – this is sometimes referred to as the “Oxford comma”. However, always insert a comma in this position if it would help prevent confusion. Dashes and hyphens (v) Em dashes The only instance in which an em dash (the longest dash) is appropriate is when used to set off the sources of quotes. In all other circumstances use an en dash instead. Avoid the use of em dashes altogether when writing for an online audience, as they often do not show up correctly on a web page. (vi) En dashes The middle-length dash. Use in a pair in place of round brackets or commas, surrounded by spaces. Use singly and surrounded by spaces to link two parts of a sentence, in place of a colon. Use to link concepts or ranges of numbers, with no spaces either side. Use between names of joint authors/creators/performers etc to distinguish from hyphenated names of a single person. (vii) Hyphens Use in an adjectival phrase before a noun unless the first element is an adverb ending in -ly (but note that any other adverbs in adjectival phrases do take a hyphen). Use a hyphen in an adjectival phrase including a verb participle. Do not include a hyphen in an adjectival phrase following a noun. Use with prefixes only if required to avoid confusion/ mispronunciation, such as where prefixes themselves or letters are repeated. Use with prefixes before a proper name, number or date. Use in numbers which are spelt out if required (this should be unusual), and in compass points (unless used geographically rather than as directions). Do not use hyphens in noun phrases. Never use a hyphen to make a new compound noun – if it is a recognisable concept, make it one word. If it is not, use two words.

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(viii) Full stops, Exclamation Marks and Question Marks Use one - but only one- of these at the end of every sentence. Do not use a full stop at the end of titles, even if they make a sentence, but, if a title ends with an exclamation mark or question mark, do include it. Do not use a full stop if it will be followed, or preceded, by an ellipsis. Use a full stop, not a question mark, at the end of a reported question, and use a full stop, not an exclamation mark, at the end of a reported imperative. (ix) Quotation Marks Use double quotation marks for direct speech or a quote, and single quotation marks for direct speech or a quote within that. Use no quotation marks if the quote is displayed (ie not in line with the rest of the text). Use single quotation marks and roman (not italic) type for titles that are not whole publications. If the quote would have required punctuation in its original form, place the punctuation inside the quotation marks. Place any punctuation which does not belong to the quote outside the quotation marks.

5.3. Concept of Spelling Students learn that if their writing is to be clearly understood, they need to spell words correctly. As students progress through primary school and into the early years of secondary school, learning is separated into key areas. Each of these key learning areas uses particular written, spoken and symbolic forms to present its knowledge. Thus each subject makes distinctive literacy demands upon students. It is the responsibility of all teachers, primary and secondary, to value the correct spelling of all words in students’ writing. It is also important for teachers to identify the spelling demands of their learning areas and to teach students explicitly the specific vocabulary of their subjects and the spelling knowledge students need in order to spell this vocabulary correctly.

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5.3.1. Development of spelling in students As students learn to write, their spelling demonstrates identifiable characteristics that can indicate different phases of development in spelling competence. These characteristics of development in spelling can be seen in students’ writing by observing their spelling behaviours. For example: a. Discernible letters, numbers and symbols suggest that students are entering the beginning phases of learning to spell. b. One, two or three letters or first and last consonants representing a word indicate that students are starting to make connections between the letters of the alphabet and sounds. c. Increasing consistency in using letters to represent the sound patterns in words indicates that students are frequently matching letters to the sounds that they are hearing. d. Greater control over the correct spelling of high frequency words and an increasing awareness of visual and morphemic knowledge indicate that students are moving away from largely using phonological knowledge towards a wider use of other forms of spelling knowledge. e. Drawing upon all four sources of spelling knowledge, in an integrated way and automatically, indicates that students have developed a high level of spelling competence. The development of these phases can be identified in students’ writing as they progress towards achievement of syllabus outcomes in all subjects and key learning areas. The writing strand includes a specific spelling outcome for each stage. Spelling indicators in the substrands “learning to read and write” and “learning about reading and writing” provide examples of how students might demonstrate achievement of reading and writing outcomes. Students’ experiences in reading and writing provide opportunities to develop skills and understandings in spelling. The inclusion of spelling indicators in the syllabus substrands of learning to ... and learning about ... show the importance of providing learning experiences that enable students to acquire and apply the skills and understandings of spelling in both reading and writing.

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“EnglishspellingisanationalmisfortunetoEngland,aninternational misfortune to the rest of the world, yet it cannot be denied that the spelling ability is an important acquisition.” The ability to spell words correctly is one of the essentials of correct composition. Nothing offends so much as incorrect spelling. “To spell one’s words correctly is a part to courtesy due to a person who is to read what is written and the absence of it is considered a lack of good education and respectability.” As such, correct spelling should be learnt and given priority in reading and writing English. Purity of spellings has special significance in the Hindi language. Existence of pure spellings is extremely necessary for the pure language. The purity of pronunciation is necessary for the verbal language and the pure spellings are necessary for the pure written language. If a person expresses through incorrect spellings, then with that the meaning and emotion of the language also gets changed. Not only the written expression is made ineffective, but also the verbal one through the incorrect spellings. The nature of the Hindi language is completely scientific. Whatever is written in this language, the same is spoken and read. In the Hindi language, pronunciation and spellings both are interdependent. If the pronunciation would be impure then the spellings would also become incorrect. It is, therefore, extremely necessary to pay attention towards the impurities relating to spellings in the teaching of education. There are separate script symbols for writing the sound of each letter in the Hindi language. If the student is imparted knowledge of sound symbols of all the letters in a well-manner, then the child would not commit mistakes of spellings.

5.3.2. The Objectives of Teaching Spellings The objectives of teaching spelling in schools are: 1. To make the spelling of words automatic. 2. To develop in children the spelling sense. 3. To teach them correct spelling rather than unteach incorrect spelling.

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4. To enable them to acquire mastery over the spelling of words used by them. 5. To enable them to spell additional words as they come across them in their daily writing. 6. To develop in them an awareness of the need of correct spellings. Some Characteristics of English Spellings The spelling of English is, in the words of Ernest Weekly, ‘quite crazy’. Logically, there should be one symbol or letter for one sound, but in English there are only 26 symbols or letters for 45 sounds. As a result, there is quite a lot of confusion about English spelling. The Editor of The Times of India has very aptly put it, The student is embarrassed to find that there is one r in ‘harassed’ and is harassed to find that there are two rr in ‘embarrassed’. The English teacher should know the pecularities of English spelling. It will facilitate his work of teaching English spelling. Some worth mentioning pecularities are as follows : 1. Homophones—There are words which have some sound but are spelt differently, e.g. cellar, seller. 2. One Letter Different Sounds—Each letter of English alphabet stands for two or more sounds. 3. Silent Letters— Many letters are not pronounced, e.g,. r when it comes before a consonant. English Spelling is illogical English spelling system is irrational and illogical. The student is embarrassed to find that there is one ‘r’ in ‘harassed’ and is harassed to find that there are two ‘rs’ in ‘embarrassed’. English has 44 sounds, whereas the number of letters of the alphabet is only 26. Thus 5 vowels are made to do the job of 12 pure vowel sounds and 8 diphthongs. 21 consonants, three of which viz. G, Q, X are redundant, stand for 24 consonant sounds. The letter ‘a’, for example, represents different sounds in able, about, after, want, all, any. The same vowel sound / u : / is represented by different vowel letters or their combinations in tomb, who, blue,

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doom, June, lose, move and you. Besides, there are many words in English in which a letter or letters are silent. For example, ‘b’ in ‘debt’, ‘t’ in ‘often’, ‘k’ ,and ‘gh’ in ‘knight’. It is the illogicality of English spelling that made Max Muller, a German linguist, describe it as a national misfortune for England and an international misfortune for the rest of the world. Bernard Shaw made fun of English spelling system by pointing out that by taking the ‘gh’ of ‘laugh’, the ‘o’ of ‘women’, the ‘ti’ of ‘nation’, ‘fish’ could be written ‘ghoti’. In the face of the illogicality of the English spelling system the only tool in the hands of the teacher of English is to create in his pupils a general consciousness of the relationship of sound to spelling. Our present-day English spelling, having grown for centuries and now reflecting the pronunciation of five or six centuries ago, is the surest way to help poor spellers in practising the “tiresome virtues — persistence, industry, patience.”

5.3.3. How to spell correctly? Here are some hints that the teacher may adopt to help his pupils to learn to spell correctly : 1. Dictation—Dictation provides to pupils practice in spelling. It is a diagnostic technique that enables the teacher to know what words the pupils misspell. Thus, the teacher is able to teach correct spelling of the misspelt words. 2. Looking up the dictionary—Pupils, especially at the high 2chool stage, should be encouraged to look up the dictionary. It will be a good idea if they have dictionaries of their own. A good dictionary may be placed in the classroom and the pupils may refer to it. 3. Preparing a spelling book—Each pupil should prepare a spelling book containing the words which are difficult to spell. 4. List of words often misspelt —A chart containing some ten words which are often misspelt by most of the pupils should be hung in the classroom so that the pupils may look at it during their free time. This chart may be replaced every week or fortnight.

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5. Spelling games —There are a number of games which may be usefully employed to learn spelling. We mention a few of them : (i) Word building—Pupils are given a word and asked to build as many words as possible using the letters constituting that word. For example, pupils are asked to write words using the letters from the word ‘dictionary’. They may write act, action, into, yarn, yard, diary, diction, etc. (ii) Spelling Bee—The class is divided into two groups. An intelligent student called the master of ceremonies reads out words from a list. He asks words from members of each group in turn. The pupil who spells a word correctly gains a point for his group whereas he loses a point if he misspells it. (iii) Completion Game—The class is divided into two groups. The first student in one group speaks out a letter. Now the first student in the second group adds another letter to it. Then the second student in the first group adds a letter and so on. In case a student fails to supply a letter in his turn, his group loses one point provided the previous student in the other group names this letter. (iv) Memory Game—The teacher writes 5 to 10 words on the blackboard, reverses it and then asks the pupils to reproduce those words from memory. 6. Rules—The teacher may tell the pupils some rules about spelling as the following : (i) When full is used as a suffix, its spelling is ful, e.g., beautiful, careful, truthful. But fully is spelt with ll. (ii) When a noun ends in ‘y’ preceded by a consonant, its plural is formed by changing ‘y’ into T and by adding ‘es’, e.g., baby, babies ; story, stories. (iii) Write ‘i’ before ‘e’ except after ‘c’. Examples : believe, relieve, receive, deceive. Some exceptions are either, leisure and seize. But rules do not take us far.

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7. Transcription—We use our visual, auditory and motor memories to learn spelling. Transcription therefore is very helpful in learning spelling. Here the learner makes use of his visual memory by carefully looking at a word. It is true to say spelling is ‘caught’ rather than ‘taught’. While writing the word himself, the learner makes use of his motor memory. When we are in doubt about the spelling of a word, we write it. There are some pupils who try to remember the spelling of words by speaking them aloud to themselves thus making the ears help the eyes. The best way to learn the spelling of a word is to transcribe it 4, 5 times. 8. Spelling is caught rather than taught—English spelling is illogical and irrational. There are no rules to teach spelling. Hence spelling cannot be taught. On the other hand, it is caught. Wide readers are good spellers. It is because they meet the words in print again and again. If we misspell a word, e.g., ‘arithmatic’, there appears to be something wrong with its total appearance. It is our visual memory that comes to our rescue at that time. We spell the word as ‘arithmetic’and it strikes us as correct. Spelling is thus caught rather than taught. 9. FormingAssociations—One of the best ways of remembering spellings of words that are likely to be misspelt is to form certain associations around them. For example, the word ‘together’ is often misspelt as ‘togather’. We shall always spell this word correctly if we remember the combination ‘get’ in it. This can be done by remembering the sentence : Let us get together. ‘Advisable’ is often misspelt as ‘adviseable’. But, if we remember the sentence. It is always advisable to get a visa well in time when going abroad — we shall not commit the mistake. Here are some more examples : Jeweller : The jeweller was well dressed. Entry : You should not try to change any entry in the register. Arithmetic : Arithmetic is an easy subject for me. Familiar : He is a liar if he says that he is familiar with her. Benefited : He is a fit person to be benefited.

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Omission : None will miss this omission. Beginning : We stopped at an inn in the beginning of our journey. Beggar : I saw a beggar in the garden. Students should prepare a list of words which present spelling difficulties and build such associations as will help them to spell the words correctly.

5.3.4. Causes of Impurities of Spellings 1. Incomplete Knowledge of Grammar—The students commit grammatical errors due to the incomplete knowledge of the rules of grammar due to which they do not show interest in the grammar. They do not have the terminological clarity of joint, compound, prefix, suffix, noun, pronoun, adjective, etc. This incomplete understanding becomes the cause of the impurities. 2. Impure Pronunciation—The cause of the impurities of spellings among the students is also their impure pronunciation. Hindi language is written also in the same way as it is spoken. While speaking it, the impurity of pronunciation also affects the writing. The inaccurate pronunciation of àæ, â and á becomes the cause of their impure writing. 3. Carelessness in Writing—The students display many types of impurities in spellings due to carelessness. One of the reasons for the same is rapidity also. While writing in quickness, ÿ is written like ¬ and œ is written like ƒæ. Some of the letters are left due to writing in haste. 4. Use of Joint Letters—In the Devanagari script, the symbol of the script also becomes small due to the sound being small. 150 joint sounds in the Hindi language are its specialty. The students are not familiar with the rules of their joining. Due to this reason also, they commit errors in the spellings, like they write ôÊ as ‚ÿ. 5. Provincial and Regional Impact—Due to the impact of the provincial language, not only the impurities relating to pronunciation take place but the impact of impure pronunciation also affects on the spellings of the students; like they speak œÙ’Ë as ºÙ’Ë and ÷Íπ as ’Íπ and then also write accordingly. Thus, due to the impact of the Punjabi,

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Rajasthani, Bengali, Gujarati, etc provincial languages -errors of spellings are committed. 6. Lack of Uniformity—There are so many such words in the Hindi language as at the time of writing those words the students get confused. The reason for this is non-existence of uniformity in these words. For example : ‘ª∞’ and ‘ªÿ’ in both these forms, this word is written. The standard form of the spellings gets affected with it. Besides this, the words of Hindi are spoken by various methods in the various parts of the country. With this also, the uniformity of pronunciation gets affected. 7. Impact of Environment and Society—Incorrect form of the word is written on some signboard, motor vehicle and on the wall the students also write incorrectly by getting thereby influenced. Like ‘œãÿflʺ’ is written as ‘œãÿÊflʺ’. Similarly, whatever is pronounced in the home gets changed on going out of the home. The child who is called ‘Billu’ or ‘Binder’in the home, due to formality the same becomes ‘Balwinder’. Similarly, various classes of the society pronounce through various methods.After listening to the incorrect pronunciation in the homes the children indulge to write the word erroneously. 8. Incomplete knowledge of the script—The teacher should provide the knowledge of the script to the student in an appropriate manner. Accurate use of the written symbols of all the sounds of the alphabet should be taught. If they would not have the clear knowledge of the script, then they would not be able to write accurately. The students often commit errors in writing ◊ and ÷, œ and ÉÊ. Often they go on committing errors relating to Halant, colon, nasal and top point the reason of which is the incomplete knowledge of the script. 9. Insufficient Knowledge of the Matras—If the students are explicated at the time of imparting knowledge of sounds along with the script as to how various vowels join with each consonant and how those are written separately; then they cannot make the impure use of the Matras. Like, they write ∑§Áfl as ∑§flË and ÁªÁ⁄UU as Áª⁄UË.

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10. Lack of Guidance by the teacher and Impure Writing— The teachers do not mark the errors committed in the written work of the students and they do not guide the students to rectify those errors, then the students write inaccurately in the similar manner. Similarly, when the teacher writes incorrectly while doing the written work on the blackboard, then the students also start writing in the similar manner. 11. Lack of Written Work—Many of the teachers assign very less written work to the students merely to avoid the rectification work which they consider as extra burden; due to which the students do not even get the opportunity of writing. When those students write, they commit errors of various types. 12. Emotional Reasons and Physical Defects—Sometimes due to the reason of a student being psychologically unhealthy or due to emotional stress also, errors relating to spellings are committed because while writing the student is not able to write attentively. Similarly, a student writes only incorrectly due to some sort of deficiency in his listening senses and visionary senses. 13. Intellectual Impairment—Script marks symbolical of sound get graven on the memory board of the students and the student goes on writing the same accurately on the basis of his memory. But in case the concept, previous memory and previous knowledge power is weak, then even after learning the pure form, the student is not able to hold the same in his memory and then he commits the error relating to spellings. 14. Lack of Detailed Study—Teaching of Hindi is done somewhat in such a manner as the same merely makes the students conscious towards the preparation of the examination. They memorize some important questions from the examination point of view. They do not even attempt to move in the direction of detailed study. More time is accorded by them to the subjects of Mathematics, Science, English, etc due to which they are not able to take the subject of Hindi seriously. They are able to view the written form of the words only sparingly and when they write those words, then they write the same inaccurately only.

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Remedies to remove the impurities relating to the spellings— Impurities relating to the spellings lessen the impact of the written expression. Therefore efforts should be made to remove these impurities. Hindi teachers can make meaningful efforts in this direction. They should indulge towards the teaching of Hindi with full readiness and should spare time to mark the impurities relating to the spellings done by the students. After that the efforts should be taken up fully to remove those impurities. 1. Knowledge of the rules of grammar—At the time of getting the practice done of the spellings from the children, knowledge of the grammatical rules should also be imparted to them. Like when making plural ߸ and ©U become ß and ©U. Combination of ƒÊ, áÊ, Ÿ, ÜÊ, ◊ is only with their own letter. Likewise they should have complete knowledge of top-point, moon-point, etc - only then the impurities of spellings can get removed. 2. Practice of Writing—If the students in the classroom would be provided enough opportunities for the written work, then they would be able to practice of the accurate spellings. They would become familiar with the maximum words and letters. With this, their spellings would go on becoming accurate while writing the word the child gets introduced with its shape. He participates in this process fully engaged. He pronounces the same in his mind and goes on writing the same with the hands simultaneously. 3. Use of Dictation—Dictation is a useful educational activity for the spellings. Spellings of the children are examined with this. They are able to develop the ability of listening the word and realization of the same. Sufficient speed is also developed in their written work with this. When the children have accomplished the sufficient practice of the formation of words and sentences, then the meaningfulness of the dictation gets increased.Along with the accuracy of the spellings, they also get the opportunity of the repetition of knowledge. The practice should also be got done of the dictation in the primary classes, secondary classes and higher classes.

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4. Use of Dictionary—The teacher should motivate the students for the use of dictionary in order to impart them the knowledge of the accurate spellings. By reading the dictionary, the students would have the knowledge of new and innovative words, their vocabulary would increase and they would be able to practice the accurate spellings. 5. Getting Made Word Booklets—The teacher should motivate the students for making the word-booklets. Pure and impure forms of the difficult words can be written in these booklets. With this, the students will get an opportunity for the accurate spellings and their vocabulary would also increase. 6. Rectification by the Teacher—Written work done by the students should be examined and the same should be rectified regularly. Along with that attention of the students should be attracted towards the impurities relating to the spellings.After marking the impurities, the students should be asked to write the correct form of the inaccurate letter or word ten times; otherwise, the student would write the same incorrectly again and again. 7. Practice of Reading— It is the duty of the language teacher that he provides the students the opportunities of reading in order to purify their spellings. In this direction, loud reading and silent reading are both equally helpful. When the students observe the written material, then they get the opportunity to know the accurate form of the spellings. When they write, they get assistance from the accurate spellings graven on their memory boards. 8. Ideal Writing by the Teacher—The teacher should use the pure form of the spellings on the blackboard and also in the answerbooklets of the spellings. The teacher should remain alert while writing so that no error should remain in his writing due to carelessness because the students write according to the spellings of the teacher. Therefore, there is more responsibility comparatively on the teacher of the accurate spellings. 9. Analytical Method—Under this method, words are divided in different sections. Then among these are taken clearly after analyzing

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the difficult sounds.After that, the practice of the same is got done from the students. This method is extremely useful for making the joint letters and difficult words simple. 10. Self Rectification Method—This method is found extremely useful. Through this method, after knowing their errors pertaining to spellings, tries to remove the same. For it, he himself examines his impurities by using the dictionary, then after observing the accurate form of the words and by writing, he practices them. 11. Practice of writing rapidly—The teacher should inculcate the habit of writing rapidly among the students, because at the time of examination, he has to write the maximum in a short time. Therefore, if they would have practice of writing rapidly, then they would not commit errors. Good handwriting and dictation should be got done from them for it. 12. Knowledge of Homogenous Words—In Hindi, almost similar pronunciation is found for many words but they provide different meanings. For example : ¬Á⁄UáÊÊ◊ - ¬˝áÊÊ◊, ‚◊ÊŸ - ‚Ê◊ÊŸ, ÁfllÊ - ÁflœÊ etc. On having the knowledge of these words, they can be expected of accurate spellings. 13. Full Knowledge of the Script—The teacher should impart the complete education of Devanagari script to the children. In this script there are separate letters each sound, even then it many specialties due to which errors of spellings are committed. Like in the Hindi language the Matra of ‘ß’ is prefixed before the consonant and the Matra of ‘߸’ is suffixed after the consonant. Similarly, the Matra of ‘©UU’ is placed below the consonant but it appears ‘L§’, when put between ⁄U.142. Practicing the pure pronunciation— Pure pronunciation is the base of writing, hence the students should practice of the pure pronunciation. As soon as the accuracy comes in the pronunciation, many of the defects relating to spellings get automatically removed. Raiburn, while considering the pure pronunciation as the main remedy of the accuracy of spellings, has stated, “Teaching of pure pronunciation helps the child to learn the correct spellings.”

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14. Practice of Barahkhadi (Twelve Verticals)— It is an extremely useful educational activity. Practice should be got done by fixing with each consonant, Matras of all the vowels, in order to teach the correct use of Matras. The student learns the pure use of Matras in it. For example, the following can be taken – ∑§, ∑§Ê, Á∑§, ∑§Ë, ∑ȧ, ∑ͧ, ∑§, ∑Ò§, ∑§Ù, ∑§ı, ∑È¢§, ∑§—

5.4. Handwriting Handwriting plays an important role in brain development and sets the foundation for other abilities like readi0ng, language use, writing, and critical thinking. The Eight Key Components of Handwriting 1. Placement – Putting letters and numbers on the baseline Placing letters and numbers on a line makes writing easier to read. It is important for the fl ow of writing. Haphazard placement makes printing appear immature, messy, or even illegible. 2. Size – How big or small a child chooses to write Children need to be able to control their movements so their writing isn’t too big for the current grade. Writing too large causes problems with school papers, speed, and spacing. 3. Start – Where each letter or number begins Good starting habits allow children to maintain neatness even when they print quickly. Children who become messy when they print quickly are typically children with incorrect starting habits. They often start letters at the bottom. 4. Sequence – Order and stroke direction of the letter or number parts The ability to form letter or number parts correctly is acquired through direct teaching and consistent practice. If children do not form parts in the right sequence, speed and neatness are affected. 5. Control – Neatness and proportion of letters and numbers Control does not usually require direct remediation. Problems

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with control are almost always caused by poor habits. If the child has an awkward pencil grip, control will be affected. If the child has a problem with start or sequence, control will be affected. As habits improve, so will the child’s control. 6. Spacing – Amount of space between letters in words, and between words in sentences Spacing is important to the legibility and uniformity of writing. Problems with spacing may be made worse by poorly designed worksheets that do not give enough room for writing. 7. Memory – Remembering and writing dictated letters and numbers Quick and automatic recall of letters and numbers is very important. Memory is essential for all independent handwriting. Poor memory hurts production, speed, and accuracy. 8. Orientation – Facing letters and numbers in the correct direction Beginners may reverse a “few” letters and numbers. But with good instruction, children can learn how to orient letters and numbers correctly. Orientation errors are distracting; children stop to think about which way the letters or numbers go. Orientation errors cause spelling and legibility mistakes. Handwriting Analysis Handwriting analysis is an effective and reliable indicator of personalityandbehaviourdefinedbyyourhandwritingskills.Handwriting is generally learned by watching another person write when you are young, but you later develop your own style of writing, which later expresses your personality.

5.5. Teaching of Vocabulary In order to read words we must first know them. Imagine how frustrating and fruitless it would be to read this article if all of the words were unfamiliar to you. As children become stronger, more advanced readers they not only learn to connect their oral vocabularies (the words we know when they are spoken) to their reading vocabularies

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(the words we know when they are used in print) they also strengthen each of these areas by adding new words to their repertoires. Vocabulary development is an ongoing process that continues throughout one’s “reading life”. There are two primary ways of teaching and learning new vocabulary words. The first is explicit instruction. This involves someone telling you how a word is pronounced and what its meaning is. That “someone” might be a teacher, a dictionary, a vocabulary guide or any other resource offering definitions and pronunciations. Context clues provide another method for discovering new words. Context clues are the “hints” contained in a text that help a reader figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. They include other words in a sentence or paragraph, text features (ie. bold print, italics), illustrations, graphs and charts. Context clues are basically any item in the text that points to the definition of a new word. The teaching of vocabulary is as important as the teaching of structures. A thorough familiarity with the syntax of English and an ability to use the basic structures of the. language are a prerequisite, but equally important is a command of words. This is because language is meant for communication aad it is in words that concepts and ideas are enshrined. Without the use of meaningful words no communication is possible. Before talking about methods or techniques of teaching of vocabulary, it is necessary to know the English vocabulary. Definitions of Vocabulary —A vocabulary is a list of words ? Word has been defined by scholars as: According to ‘Strung’ he states, “The most important criterion of a word is that it is the smallest unit that can in ordinary usage function alone as a sentence.” According to ‘Bloom Field’, he defines, “A free form which is not a phrase, is a word.” Teaching of vocabulary means getting pupils acquainted with new words as it is very important because in the words of ‘H W. Beecher’, “Words are pegs to rang ideas on.”

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5.5.1. Importance of Vocabulary Teaching One of the important aims of teaching English in India is to enable the students to use it as a library language. Even though we have switched over to the regional languages as the media of instruction at the university level, yet there is no denying the fact that a student at the university level must have a good grounding in English to have access to books written in this language. He should be able to read with speed and comprehension and to prepare notes on the material read. This he can do only if he has a large vocabulary. While speaking and writing one can make use of a minimum vocabulary of 3,000 words or so as one can choose one’s words. But while listening and reading a person needs a large vocabulary because he cannot choose the words. According to Robert Lado, a vocabulary of 7,000 words is needed for reading. But many of the students at the university stage have very inadequate vocabulary and the professors complain that they cannot follow lectures in English, their reading comprehension is also very poor on account of this reason. Inadequate vocabulary is the commonest cause of failure in college English.

5.5.2. Types of Vocabulary Vocabulary Recognition Production Vocabulary Vocabulary or or Passive Active Vocabulary Vocabulary Broadly speaking, vocabulary is of two types: 1. Recognition or Passive Vocabulary. 2. Production or Active Vocabulary. 1. Recognition Vocabulary—Those words with which the pupils are familiar but they use sparingly are a part of this vocabulary. Literary, technical or scientific, words are always specific and specialised. That’s why they are not generally used in daily life. They play least role in

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ordinary communication. They convey meaning to the text or the speech only on special occasions. In general, we can say, “It is our foundation and we tend to transfer words from this vocabulary to our active vocabulary as our language experience develops.” One has to master it for receptive purposes. 2. Production Vocabulary—It refers to the students’ active vocabulary used for communication. Whether speaking or writing something, a major part of vocabulary are the words from production vocabulary. In fact, all the ‘common core words’ are its part. This vocabulary keeps on increasing with age and experience as the words from passive vocabulary are transferred to the active vocabulary and finally only specialised words remain passive. Every person has his own storehouse of active vocabulary has and full command of it. This helps to convert thoughts and ideas into words. Its required to make pupils proficient in speaking and writing. It adds fluency to speech and efficiency to writing.

5.5.3. Selection and Gradation of Vocabulary It is essential to select and grade vocabulary properly. Teaching becomes easy if vocabulary is properly selected. According to an estimate, it is possible to prepare word list of 3000 words which would cover at least 95 percent of normal English. But how to select these words. Following are the principles which should be kept in mind while selecting the vocabulary: I. Principles for the Selection of Vocabulary 1. Productivity of a Word—Whatever words are selected should have word-building value. The words with prefixes and suffixes should be introduced. Such words have more productivity than others. For example use, useless, used, usable, man, manly, manhood, manliness. 2. Structural Value of a Word—The words having structural value should be introduced. These words help in the construction of sentences. For instance, the word ‘but’, ‘and’ have high structural value.

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3. Regional Value of a Word—While learning a particular language, it should be seen that words are selected for which particular region. The particular list of words should be preferred which reflects that particular region. Thus teacher should start with teaching first those words which have regional value and come across in pupil’s day to day life. This will create interest of the child in a language. 4. Frequency of a Word—While selecting a word, the popularity of the word should be considered. It means the number of times a particular word is used. While selecting the vocabulary, such words should be preferred which occur more frequently in speech and others should come later, until the learner gains mastery on the first set of words. Faucett and Maki have classified words as follows: (i) Indispensable Words—According to Faucett and Maki, these are about three hundred and sixty in number which cannot be separated and help up to gain mastery over four skills, i.e. understanding, reading, speaking and writing. (ii) Essential Words— These are about 1198 words which are very essential and help us in gaining mastery over three skills viz understanding, reading and writing. (iii) Useful Words —There are many useful words, which come after indispensable and essential words, which help in gaining mastery over reading and understanding. (iv) Special Words —These are those words only which helps the learner in reading. 5. Universality of a Word—The words having universal significance should be selected. These type of words are important everywhere and remain important for all times. As, if a student from Punjab happens to live in Maharashtra, should have sufficient vocabulary to interact and should face no difficulty. 6. Range ofApplicability—While selecting a word, it should be seen that in how many different situations a word can be used. The words with more range of applicability should be selected by the teacher first which can be used in variety of different situations.

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II. Principles for the Gradation of Vocabulary The principles governing the gradation of vocabulary are as follows: 1. Usefulness—While grading the vocabulary items, the useful words should be taken care first. For example- nouns like table, chair, pen, paper etc. are more useful to the beginners than staples, lily, turquoise, etc. 2. Simplicity—Out of the selected words the simple words should be taken first than the difficult words. For example the word ‘good’ should be taught first than to ‘immaculate’. 3. Structural Value—A word which has more structural value for the pupils should be taken up first instead of words in the less structural value. 4. Teachability—The words which can be taught more easily as compared to others, should be taken up first. The words become more easier as the objects or actions for which they stand can be shown or performed.

5.5.4. Different Approaches for Teaching Vocabulary 1. Using mother-tongue—According to F.G. French, “If you have to translate, get it over quickly and get back into English, by using the word in a number of sentences.” It is rather advisable for a teacher to use mother tongue to tell the meaning of a particular word if all sort of devices fail. But we should not depend upon it too much. 2. Through word - games—Word games play important role in learning of words. Word games create interest in learning new words and children learn better through play-way method. 3. Use of Charts and Models—Pictures should be drawn on the charts for the depiction of those objects which cannot be brought into the classroom. As visualisation of the things bring more clarity of the concept. 2. By drawing figures on the black-board—A language teacher should be able to draw figures of animals and birds and other contextual

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objects on the blackboard. Thus activity will prove to be helpful to have definite ideas regarding words. Sometimes, students can also be asked to draw figures on the blackboard. 4. By using the words in context—Context controls the meaning in teaching vocabulary. The words have meanings in context in which they are used. A word becomes clear to the pupils when illustrated throu5h a situation. 5. Through action—By performing actions in the class, different situations can be created to teach new words especially, action words for example-jumping, clapping, writing, etc. 6. Using morphological devices—Using morphological devices, also helps a child to learn new words. If prefixes or suffixes are added to a word, it will help the child to understand the meanings of different words also. For example, if they are acquainted with the word, ‘guide’ it they will be able to understand the words like misguide, guidance, etc. 7. Through Association—The new words to be taught should be associated with the words already known to the pupils, which helps in understanding the new words easily. 8. Using words in sentences—The words should be taught by using them in sentences in such a way that the meaning comes out to be very clear. Students should also be encouraged to make the sentences using these words.

5.5.5. Nature and Kind of Words A. Nature : 1. No exact equivalents between languages—Except for highly technical words, no two words in different languages have the same areas of meaning. The words in two languages may be synonym in one situation, but they may not be so in other situations. There is never a complete one-to-one correspondence between the words of one language and those of another. There are no exact equivalents between languages. Consider English word table. Its equivalent in Hindi is ◊ïÊ. In such a sentence as “I have a table”, Hindi equivalent appropriately

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conveys the sense. But in such expressions as table of contents, table of figures, multiplication table, time table, table the motion, we cannot use ◊ïÊ at all. The reader will do well to find out the mother tongue equivalent of these expressions. It may be said that table in English and ×ð•æ in Hindi carry the same meaning in -one context, but they have different meanings in other contexts. It is for this reason that translation is unreliable and may give a distorted meaning if done literally. The following expressions, if translated literally, give absurd meaning.— “the foot of the mountain”, “the mouth of a river.” 2. Words convey their meanings in context—A word gets its meaning from the context in which it is used. It is on account of this reason that it is difficult to tell the meaning of a word in isolation. Consider the word dog and see how it changes its meaning in these expressions — dog days (hottest part of year) ; go to the dogs (be ruined) ; Every dog has his day ; love me, love my dog; rain cats and dogs ; die like a dog; not a dog’s chance (not even the least chance) ; lead a dog’s life (be worried); give dog ill-name and hang him ; let sleeping dogs lie ; to dog one’s steps. There is no end to the list. So the real meaning of a word depends on the context only. The meaning of a word is not like a price tag round its neck. The unit of meaning is often not a single word but a phrase or even a whole sentence. Too many cooks spoil the broth, has a meaning quite separate from the meanings of individual words. The reader will find that many proverbs and metaphors in English have a meaning different from the meanings of individual words of which they are composed. 3. There are no exact synonyms within a language—There are no two words in a language which are completely equivalent in meaning. The reader may take any two words in English which he considers to be equivalent in meaning and use them in different contexts. He will find that whereas the two words are replaceable in a particular context, he cannot use one for the other in a number of other situations where only one of them fits. Fowler in his Modern English Usage says, “Synonyms, in the narrowest sense, are separate words whose meaning, both denotation and connotation, is so fully identical that one can always

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be substituted for the other without change in the effect of the sentence in which it is done. Whether any perfect synonyms exist, is doubtful. Thus, it does not matter much whether I say a word has two senses or two meanings and sense and meaning are, therefore, loose synonyms. But, if He is a man of sense is written as He is a man of meaning, it becomes plain that sense and meaning are far from perfect synonyms.” In the sentence This is a right answer, I may replace right by correct. This is a correct answer : right and correct are loose synonyms in this context. But in the sentence : This is my right hand I cannot substitute correct for right without sounding foolish. Every word has some area of meaning. It may be equivalent to another word in one context but may not be so in another context. 4. Words have more than one meaning—The layman thinks that a word has only one meaning. This is not true. The number of words having only one meaning is very few. Usually a word has from fifteen to twenty meanings. The first five hundred words of the Thorndike Word List have 14,070 meanings, as recorded in the Oxford English dictionary. The number of meanings is 25,000 for the first one thousand words. It may surprise the reader to find that the word come has 69 meanings ; go 94 ; make 97 ; take 91 ; set as a verb has 126 meanings and 47 as a noun. It is clear that words have more than one meaning. These different meanings of individual words should be taught as new words. 5. Words change their meanings—It is well known that vocabulary is the least stable part of a language. Not only some words are dying and others being born, but some of them are undergoing changes in meaning. It is interesting for the reader to note that villain, at one time, meant “a farm labourer” ; knave was originally “a boy” and later “a servant”. Silly, at one time, meant “blessed” or “good”. B. Kinds of Word : Words in English may be divided into two broad categories : 1. Function or Structure Words—These are the words which primarily operate as means of expressing relations of grammatical structure. These words include :

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1. All the prepositions : in, on, for, among, etc. 2. All the pronouns : I, you, them, etc. 3. All the helping verbs : do, did, may, could, etc. 4. All the conjunctions : and, but, because, either, etc. 5. All the relatives : who, which, whom, whose, etc. 6. Some structural adjectives this, that, some, any, etc. 7. Some structural adverbs : always, again, even, more, etc. Function words, also called structure words, are very important for the construction of sentences. They are the most difficult words to teach and occur as teaching points in the structural syllabus. 2. Content Words—These are the words that stand for ‘things’, for ‘actions’ and ‘qualities’. Whereas the total number of function words is nearly 300, the rest of the words in the dictionary are content words. The content words have been divided into three classes : I. Words for things, ideas and entities. II. Words for actions, and III. Words used to describe the qualities of things or actions. These categories correspond to the traditional parts of speech, viz. nouns, verbs and adjective-adverbs. Techniques of Teaching new Words There are two distinct steps in teaching new words, viz., (1) Presentation and (2) Practice. The second step is generally ignored in most of the classrooms. Presentation—Presenting a new word involves giving students its “sound”, the sense” and the “shape”. In other words, it means the teaching of pronunciation, meaning and spelling of the word. Words may be presented through any of these techniques : visual, demonstration, association and verbal context. Visual techniques include pictures or charts, matchstick figures on the blockboard or material displayed on the flannel board. Demonstration techniques include the showing of actual objects or performing actions by the

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teacher or the pupils. Association techniques include telling the synonyms or antonyms of words or giving their meanings in the mother tongue. Verbal context means giving definition or explanation of a word in the target language itself or using it in a self defining context. The use of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English in this regard will be very helpful for the teacher. Practice—In order to enable the pupils to make these words an active part of their vocabulary, they should be given much practice in the use of these words. They may be asked to use the words in sentences of their own. As noted earlier, we teach the new words after the pupil has been given ample practice in speaking, reading and writing the new structure. Thus, practice of new words is integrated with pattern practice. Later on, at the application stage the same words are used for oral and written composition. New words which the pupil wants to learn at the productive level have not to be mastered only orally, but in writing also. Thus, the pupil should be given practice in writing the new words. However, while teaching passive vocabulary, the teacher should feel satisfied if the pupil just understands the meaning of the new word. Another way of providing practice to the pupils in the use of new words is to ask them to solve certain exercises demanding the command of the new vocabulary items. Such exercise have been listed at the end of this chapter. In the preceding paragraphs, we have mentioned in the summary form the techniques of teaching new words. Below we illustrate with the help of examples how to teach new vocabulary items both at the junior and the senior stage. Teaching Recognition Vocabulary All the vocabulary items at the junior stage have to be mastered at the productive level, that is to say, the pupil must be able to use these

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items in his speech and writing. But, at the senior stage, there will be certain words which will form a part of the recognition vocabulary of the pupil. The teacher must be able to identify such words. He need not spend time in making the pupils practise the use of these words. The difference between teaching active and passive vocabulary is that whereas in teaching the former enough practice is given to the pupils in the use of words, no such practice is given in teaching the latter. In teaching the recognition vocabulary, it is enough to explain the meanings of words in simple English or to give mother tongue equivalents. Supplementary reading should be encouraged to enable the pupils to widen their recognition vocabulary. The pupils may also be asked to look up the dictionary. Suggested Techniques to Improve Teaching of Vocabulary 1. Creating Verbal Situations—For abstract and complex words, sometimes no visual situation can be created. In such cases the teachers can create a verbal situation which will clarify the concept. For higher classes, this technique is highly beneficial. 2. Use of Word-Games—Various types of word-games are possible for teaching new words. This not only facilitates teaching but also breaks monotony of the class. Pupils learn in an interesting manner. 3. Selection and gradation of vocabulary—The vocabulary to be taught, should be scientifically selected and graded keeping the task, pupil’s mental level and their requirements in mind. Words should not be bombarded in a haphazard manner but should be introduced systematically in an effective manner. The teacher should be well aware of new words coming in a lesson. He should know which type of words should be in pupil’s active vocabulary and which ones in the passive. 4. Use of Actual Objects—For every new word especially at junior level, teacher should try to show actual objects to the pupils. For teaching common concrete words at this level actual objects are easily

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available. With this, students learn by direct encounter with the meaning of the word in a concrete manner without any burden on their imagination. Seeing the real thing results in retention of learnt items. 5. Use of Actions and Gestures—Verbs can be taught with this technique in an effective way. Most of the actions contained in verbs can be performed in the class by the teacher involving pupils. There will be no need to memorise those words as first hand experience results in long lasting retention. High transfer of learning is seen. 6. Using General and Specific Audio-Visual Aids— General aids like chalkboard etc. and specific aids strictly according to the topic like model, charts, actual objects, pictures etc. work wonders in this case. New vocabulary is learnt easily and retained for long when accompanied by sketches, picture, actual objects etc. Otherwise pupils visualise vague thing with guess work. So, teacher should be zealful enough to take pains for arranging aids. 7. Using Words in Sentences—Pupils get a better idea of the meaning of new words when used in sentences. During the first step i.e. presentation, the teacher uses the words in sentences while during practice session, pupils have to use the words in their own sentences. But sentences should be such that the meaning of the word is automatically clear. Sentences should be precise and clear not ambiguous. 8. Teaching though Association—The teacher should proceed following the principle of correlation. New vocabulary items should be associated with the old ones. The teacher can use different types of tense, gender, number, synonyms or antonyms for it. 9. Use of Mother Tongue—This is advised in a situation when no other technique can make pupils understand the meaning. For instance, abstract words like honesty, love, emotion, are difficult to picturise or explain. In such cases, mother tongue can be used by the teacher. But this should be used occasionally.

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5.5.6. Expansion of Vocabulary Even if the pupils master almost all target words i.e. 2,500-3,000 words in six year course, they need to gradually expand their vocabulary. We expand our friend circle. Similarly we should expand vocabulary because words are our best friends. Not only pupils but teachers too keep on adding new to their knowledge of words. Following tips can help the individuals to expand their vocabulary. 1. Word-association is a boon for expansion of vocabulary. Words having similar idea like synonyms and having opposite idea like antonyms, words related to same department or place, same sound, same context etc., are included in this type. 2. Use of phrases and idioms also helps in expansion. 3. Word-exercises like matching of columns with synonyms or antonyms or word-meanings are also recommended. 4. The teacher can write a letter on the blackboard and pupils have to make a word-list starting with they very letter. 5. Another game is that the teacher speaks a word and the pupil has to tell a word starting with the last letter with the word spoken by the teacher. 6. Five new words may be daily written on the attendance chalkboard of the school by students turn by turn. 7. Word-lists help a lot. Pupils are given a word by the teacher and they have to prepare a list of words concerning that very word. e.g. Hospital, doctor, nurse, medicine, operation etc. 8. Use of homonyms also clarifies many concepts. These are words having same pronunciation but different meanings, e.g, cite, site, flower, flour, floor etc. 9. Teacher writes a word on chalkboard and the pupils are asked to draw out more words out of it. e.g. the teacher gives the word ‘TEACHER’ which has so many words in it like-teach, reach, each, tea, chat, cheat, ache, her etc.

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10. The teacher can give exercises involving the use of prefixes and suffixes. All these things are highly beneficial for expansion of vocabulary of pupils but they should be told about some peculiarities of English language. First is that we can’t find mother-tongue equivalents for every English word. Secondly, words may be ambiguous and can have different meanings when used in different contexts. Third fact is that even synonyms are not the same. They give approximate meaning.And last thing is that a word may mean different in isolation while different when used in a sentence. A good vocabulary is essential for communication. This fact has to be taken care of any language teaching programme. The important features of a word that require practice in learning are pronunciation, spelling, meaning and usage and there are many ways by which a student can build up a sizable vocabulary. In teaching vocabulary the main objective of learning a language mastering it as a living, usable language for all forms of communication’ — must always be kept in mind. Each student requires the largest possible vocabulary to express himself to his satisfaction, and nothing should act as a disincentive to his effort to develop a good vocabulary.

EXERCISE Essay Type Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

What do you know about about the concept of Grammar ? Discuss the objectives of teaching Grammar. How we can develop spelling in students ? Describe the various causes of impurities of spelling ? Define the different characteristics of hand writing. Write down the various types of vocabulary. How we can select and grade a vocabular ?

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Short Answer Type Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Write the salient features of Grammar. Describe the different types of Grammar. Discuss the advantage of teaching Grammar. Write the characteristics of English spellings. Discuss the remedies to remove the impurties relating to spellings. 6. What is the importance of vocabulary in teaching ? 7. Write the different approaches for teaching vocabuolary.

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6.1. Factual, Fictional and Revisiting Text The selection of appropriate texts is one of the most important aspects of reading instruction. The text must be appropriate for the reading level of students, for the instructional strategy being used (e.g., just right for independent reading, but slightly above the reader’s comfort level for guided reading) and for the reading strategy being taught. In addition, teachers must ensure that students at all stages of reading development are exposed to a wide range of genres, texts of varying lengths, and a variety of environmental print. Teachers need to plan ahead in selecting instructional texts, determining which texts to use for which purposes in the week ahead and ensuring that these texts are available and located in appropriate places in the classroom. 1. Factual Text This guide uses the word “factual” to describe the wide range of non-fiction texts that are appropriate for young readers. (Teachers will have seen factual texts referred to as “informational” and “expository”.) It uses “fictional” to describe works of fiction for young readers. (These works are often described as “narrative” texts.) The various features of factual and fictional texts offer teachers many opportunities to engage students in the pleasure of reading, in learning about a variety of texts, and in learning the purposes for reading them. Teachers of young readers often rely heavily on fictional texts, but students who are learning to read need to be exposed to, and to read, a wide range of genres. 233

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a. The Features and Benefits of Factual Texts—Factual texts inform, explain, and offer opinions, enhancing readers’ knowledge and understanding of a subject or topic. Teachers need to help students understand the purposes for reading various factual texts, the ways in which the various features of factual texts enhance their purpose and the kinds of reading strategies to use to comprehend factual texts. b. Teachers can use factual texts to teach the following features • tables of contents • indexes • diagrams, charts, graphs, flow charts, and other graphics • lists, including various forms of “bullets” • labels • captions • chapter titles • headings, subheadings • paragraph indentation • sidebars • content-specific vocabulary • glossaries • epilogues • appendices • references, bibliographies c. From factual texts, students learn to: • read to locate specific information;

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• follow procedures; • recount factual events; • investigate and research information; • skim and scan data; • understand explanations; • understand an author’s purpose; • develop opinions on issues; • make informed decisions; • develop study skills; • organize knowledge; • select data; • solve problems; • become familiar with content-specific vocabulary; • interpret diagrams, charts, graphs, flow charts, and other graphics. d. Types of Factual Texts • biographies • autobiographies • memoirs • diaries/journals • rules, directions, instructions • questionnaires, surveys • letters • brochures • guide books

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• manuals • dictionaries • encyclopedias and other reference texts • announcements • catalogues • contracts • reports • newspaper articles • magazine articles • interviews • editorials • reviews • speeches • menus • recipes • maps • atlases • calendars • charts • diagrams • websites • lists • captions • labels

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• advertisements • other environmental print 2. Fictional Texts : Fictional texts engage readers’ imaginations and emotions, providing them with pleasure and insights into human nature. The structure of fictional texts is often referred to as story structure, as fictional texts generally feature settings, characters, plots, initiating events or problems, subsequent events, and final events or resolutions. 3. Revisiting Texts Often the text chosen for a read-aloud lesson is revisited for different purposes. For example, the teacher may read the text aloud again to help students recall certain details, confirm the date and time of an event, or acquire a deeper understanding of the text. Revisiting texts is a valuable process, as it allows the teacher to model reading strategies that promote comprehension and lead to higherorder thinking (see Bloom’s taxonomy in Chapter 8: Reading Comprehension). A variety of texts, such as morning messages (see glossary), letters, brochures, environmental print, magazines, and books, can be revisited. The teacher can also use a text for a read-aloud lesson and then use it again for shared reading. 4. Activities for Responding to Texts Say Something—Two students share the reading of a text. One student begins reading aloud and chooses the first place to stop. At this point, both students discuss the text – connections they have to the text, their predictions, their opinions or impressions of the text, and so on. The other student reads the next portion of text, and the partners again discuss the text when the student stops reading. This process continues until the story is completed. Sketch to Stretch—After listening to or reading a story, students quickly draw a sketch that represents what the story means to

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them. Each student shows his or her sketch to the group and explains the interpretation of the text that it represents. The students talk about the different ideas the members of the group had about the same text. Save the Last Word for Me—Each student in a small group selects three or four quotes from the book the group is reading (younger children may choose interesting, confusing, or creative pictures from the text). Students write each quote on one side of an index card and, on the reverse, record what they would like to say about this quote. In a small circle, a student reads one of his or her quotes but does not share the reason for selecting it. The other students discuss why they think this quote is significant. When the discussion is over, the student who chose the quote gives his or her reason for choosing it, thus having the last word.

6.2. Responding to the Contexts, Sharing Responses and Role of the Teacher Shared reading is an interactive approach to the teaching of reading that promotes the development of new skills and consolidates those previously taught. During shared reading, the teacher provides instruction to the whole class by reading a text that all students can see, using an overhead, a big book, a chart or a poster. The teacher reads the text to the students, inviting them to join in at key instructional moments. The same text can be revisited several times for a variety of instructional purposes. “In shared reading, skills are learned in the context of meaningful familiar text. The children are actually engaged with the text and reading. They are tackling the text with a problem solving attitude and learning or using skills: they are not practising skills in isolation. An important purpose of shared reading is the explicit demonstration of reading strategies and the articulation of what those strategies are.”

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(i) The Focus of Shared Reading Like read-alouds, shared reading lessons focus on specific strategies related to comprehension and word solving. The following chart sets out the knowledge and skills that emergent, early, and fluent readers will acquire through shared reading experiences. Roles and Responsibilities in Shared Reading The roles and responsibilities of both teacher and students in shared reading are below: a. The teacher: • selects a variety of high-quality texts that all children can see (e.g., big books, charts), that contain correct language usage and structures, that contain an appropriate development of ideas, and that appeal to young readers; • promotes development of listening and reading comprehension skills; • teaches effective reading strategies and skills; • fosters development of problem-solving skills as they apply to reading; • reinforces students’ understanding of concepts of print and letter-sound relationships; • reviews patterns of reading that are familiar to students, and explores new ones; • teaches vocabulary; • introduces new genres; • highlights text features that are specific to the genre being read; • makes cross-curricular links to other subject areas; • demonstrates how reading strategies are applied in authentic reading situations; • makes ongoing observations and assessments of students’ progress;

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• selects texts for future shared reading lessons that will address students’ needs as identified by assessment data. b. Students: • learn by listening carefully to a variety of highquality texts read by good models; • develop reading skills and strategies within an authentic reading context; • develop an understanding of what reading is, and develop the confidence to read; • join in the reading when they are ready to do so; • practise reading in a safe, supportive environment, allowing themselves to take risks and make mistakes; • listen to/hear themselves read; • notice that some words occur again and again, and learn to recognize them; • develop the ability to read fluently and expressively, using appropriate phrasing; • experience reading a variety of genres (e.g., stories, poems, daily messages, songs, procedures); • express preferences and personal interests among the texts read.

6.2.1. Resources for Shared Reading The texts selected for shared reading should appeal to and engage all students. In the early primary grades, some texts will contain repetitive phrases or follow repetitive patterns. Many of the poems, songs, and rhymes will be familiar to students. Students will therefore find it easy to predict the words in and the content of these texts. A broad selection of well-crafted texts ensures a rich variety of teaching and learning experiences that challenge students’ thinking and invite collaboration in understanding the meaning of the text.

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The following resources are useful for shared reading lessons and should be used at various times: • big books (K–3) • repetitive-pattern books • texts taken from core reading materials (e.g., anthologies) • graphs, charts, and maps • word walls • samples of environmental print • poetry, songs • text written on overheads or charts (e.g., a morning message) Shared reading lessons offer teachers an opportunity to read from both factual and fictional texts in a wide range of genres, inviting students to see, hear, and discuss the differences among these texts. Through exposure to a range of texts, students come to realize that texts have different forms and are read for different purposes. These experiences encourage students to be open to a variety of crosscurricular reading materials. Factual texts enrich students’ knowledge of a subject or topic, help them build subject-specific vocabulary, introduce them to a variety of text features, and improve their visual literacy. Fictional texts engage readers’ imaginations and emotions.

6.2.2. Criteria for Selecting Shared Reading Resources and Shared Reading Lesson Factual texts should be selected from a variety of genres and topics across the curriculum and should have the following characteristics: • features that allow the teacher to address curriculum expectations • features that allow the teacher to teach selected decoding and comprehension strategies • a “difficult” reading level (i.e., texts that most students would read at an accuracy and comprehension rate of less than 90 per cent without teacher support)

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• developmentally appropriate topics • topics that will interest and appeal to students • topics that represent various cultures (e.g., discussing festivals, food, dress) • text-specific and age-appropriate vocabulary • a layout that is clear, well organized, and internally consistent • well-defined headings and subheadings • clearly defined text features • clearly labelled diagrams • captions that identify or explain illustrations, charts, etc. Fictional texts Fictional texts should be selected from a variety of genres and topics and should have the following characteristics: • features that allow the teacher to address curriculum expectations • features that allow the teacher to teach selected decoding and comprehension strategies • a “difficult” reading level (i.e., texts that most students would read at an accuracy and comprehension rate of less than 90 per cent without teacher support) • developmentally appropriate topics • topics that will interest and appeal to students • authentic stories with strong plots, well-developed characters, and interesting, well-structured storylines • representations of various cultures • predictable and repetitive patterns (for early primary students) • captivating language • effective and grade-appropriate vocabulary. Shared Reading Lesson The teaching of a shared reading lesson for emergent and early readers usually takes place over two or more days; for fluent readers, it may extend over only a day or two. It includes the following steps:

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1. selecting a teaching point. 2. selecting a text to match the teaching point. 3. creating a plan that involves noting specific areas of the text at which to stop and focus on (highlight) certain words, sounds, features, etc. 4. introducing the text to students. 5. teaching and modelling reading for students, inviting them to join in. 6. revisiting the text and the teaching/learning strategy (e.g., at a second or third session). 7. making the text available to students to reread and/or to respond to independently. When the teacher first introduces a text, he or she provides maximum support by reading most of the text while encouraging students to make predictions, follow along “with their eyes”, and join in when they are ready. The teacher models reading for students and supports them in their understanding of the text. Some students will listen and join in only during the reading of repetitive or pattern texts. Others will listen and watch as the teacher points to the words and reads. A few may predict what will happen next and verbalize the story. All will be acting and feeling like readers. As the text is revisited following the initial session, students will take more responsibility for the reading and require less teacher support. During subsequent readings, the teacher focuses on teaching points and/or reading strategies that are based on the instructional needs of the students. The teacher looks to previous assessments and close observations made during the initial reading to guide his or her decision making. The level of teacher support required will vary according to the complexity of the text, students’ familiarity with the genre, and stu-

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dents’ knowledge of the topic, the vocabulary involved and the strategies required to comprehend the text. As students become more familiar with a text during rereadings, they learn to apply increasingly complex skills and gain confidence in their reading abilities. Activities to Follow the Lesson Following the shared reading lesson, the teacher can have students reread the text using the big book or chart or small, individual copies of the text. The teacher can also have students respond independently to the text by: • completing graphic organizers (e.g., sequence charts, character maps, story webs; see glossary); • developing lists of word families or rhyming words that are related to words in the text; • using magnetic letters to make and break words; • creating a picture sequence of the story; • developing and performing a readers’ theatre (see glossary) based on the text; • engaging in other drama and role-play activities based on the text; • discussing information or events in the text (e.g., saying whether they agree or disagree); • retelling the story orally or in writing; • doing a text reconstruction (see glossary); • writing their responses to the text. Assessment Shared reading activities provide the teacher with opportunities to assess the development of students’ reading skills by using the following assessment strategies. (A) Direct observation—Does the student use appropriate strategies to decode unfamiliar vocabulary? Does the student demon-

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strate understanding of the text? Is the student able to extend the meaning of the text? Does the student recognize high-frequency words? Does the student read with phrasing and expression? “Teachers serve as guides so that children know how to engage in purposeful self direction.” (Askew and Fountas, as quoted in Parkes, 2000, p. 25) 5.14 A Guide to Effective Instruction in Reading, Kindergarten to Grade 3 (B) Assessment of student’s responses to questions—How relevant are the student’s responses to questions? What information did the student learn from the text? What did the student comprehend? (C) Assessment of student’s ability to retell a story—Does the student retell in sequence? Does the student provide details to support the story’s main idea or the theme of the text? Does the student exhibit understanding that extends beyond the text? Does the student make connections between the text and his or her personal experience, other texts, and the world in general? (D) Assessment of student’s knowledge about the concepts of print—Does the student understand the function of the title? of punctuation? of capital letters? Does the student know that print “reads” in a certain direction? • Reading conferences: What are the student’s strengths? What challenges the student? What goals should the student set for improvement? (E) Student self-assessments—Does the student assess his or her needs appropriately? Questions to elicit self-assessment could include the following: “What did you do well?” “What did you find difficult?” “How did you solve your problem?” “In what areas do you need help?” In conducting these assessments, teachers may use a variety of tools, including checklists, recording sheets or cards, charts, logs, surveys, and sticky notes.

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6.2.3. Role of the Teacher and Benefits of Sharing The purpose of education is to share our knowledge with others. A great teacher can impart a deep understanding of a subject to students effectively and with passion and hope, in turn, that in doing so those young people will be inspired to teach others. Teachers, obviously, share every day, giving their students the benefit of their experience, insights, expertise and understanding; ideally, that that spreads outwards across the community, into other classroom, homes, and on across endless networks. The shared aims of this partnership is to offer school-to-school support, both for staff and students, to spread good practice, to use technology in a meaningful (and cost-effective way), and to use evidence-based research to underpin approaches to teaching and learning. And, fundamentally, to learn from each other. For some in the independent sector sharing might mean a weakening, a dilution, (and it is perhaps this defensive position that Sir Michael Wilshaw recently attacked in his address to the annual HMC conference); but for those of us in the partnership sharing means the opposite: a strengthening, an adding to, a nourishing. The practice of sharing, which we should model in every classroom, in every school, should be heard in every discussion about education. Only in doing so will we learn, and then, perhaps, will have fulfilled our purpose as teachers.

EXERCISE Essay Type Questions 1. What do you think about factual, fictional and Revisiting text? 2. Discuss the role of the teaching to responding to the contexts and sharing responses.

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Short Answer Type Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Write a short note on fictional texts. Describe the features of factual texts. Discuss the resources of shared reading. What do you mean by shared reading lesson ? What is the critical for selection share reading resources ? Explain the role of teaching and benefits of sharing.

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