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WRITING TERM PAPERS STEP BY STEP (Unidad didáctica)

M.A. Bianchinetta Benavides Segura Escuela de Literatura y Ciencias del Lenguaje

2004

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ÍNDICE GENERAL I. PRESENTACIÓN....................................................................................................................

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II. OBJETIVO GENERAL ........................................................................................................... 4 III. OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS .................................................................................................

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IV. METODOLOGÍA ..................................................................................................................

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V. CONTENIDOS A. Teaching How to Write Term Papers ...................………………..............................

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B. Theoretical Summaries .............................……………………………………..........

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C. Complementary Material i. Punctuation Patterns................................…………............................... 19 ii. MLA Guidelines ...................................................................................... 21 iii. Rules for Syllabic Division ..................................................................... 23 VI. EJERCICIOS i. Cronograma de trabajo............................................................................ 25 ii. Sessions / Research Guides.......................................................………... 26 VII. EVALUACIÓN i. Criterios generales de evaluación ............................................................37 ii. Instrumentos................................…………............................................ 39

VII. BIBLIOGRAFÍA ..........................................................…................................................... 44

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I. PRESENTACIÓN La siguiente unidad didáctica surge como resultado de la experiencia recopilada al impartir los cursos LLB425 Investigación Bibliográfica y LLB435 Investigación en Inglés pertenecientes al programa Bachillerato en la Enseñanza del Inglés durante los años 2003 y 2004 en la Sede Regional Chorotega. Ambos cursos, –correspondientes a los dos últimos niveles del plan de estudios vigente en esos años-, tenían como principal objetivo que los estudiantes elaboraran un trabajo de investigación en forma individual y escrito en idioma inglés, a partir de fuentes secundarias y primarias, respectivamente. Los objetivos específicos de ambos cursos incluían, entre otros, el repaso de los conceptos teóricos referentes a la producción escrita en la segunda lengua, así como otras técnicas ya estudiadas en los cuatro cursos de expresión escrita aprobados en los niveles anteriores. Desde mi llegada a la Sede Chorotega, en el segundo trimestre del año 2003, pude constatar que, los estudiantes de los niveles tres y cuatro de carrera de dicha sede tenían un dominio del idioma inglés oral y escrito equivalente, o incluso inferior, al de los estudiantes matriculados en el nivel introductorio en la Sede Central. Otro aspecto era que mis alumnos desconocían casi en su totalidad la teoría y práctica que se suponía aprendida desde los cursos denominados PÁRRAFO, ENSAYO, ENSAYO ARGUMENTATIVO y TALLER DE EXPRESIÓN ESCRITA, correspondientes a los niveles anteriores; esto último producto de los deficientes procedimientos de evaluación seguidos por muchos docentes anteriores a la intervención institucional llevada a cabo en esos años, tanto en Liberia como en Nicoya. Por esta razón, cuando me asignaron ambos cursos en el tercer trimestre del 2003 y en el primer trimestre del 2004, fue necesario establecer un procedimiento que permitiera no solo cubrir la totalidad de los objetivos programáticos, sino además condensar los restantes contenidos aún no estudiados y combatir problemas como el plagio indiscriminado, la apatía hacia la investigación sobre temas referentes a la Enseñanza del Inglés, la insistencia de querer escribir sus trabajos en español (como lo venían haciendo hasta entonces) y una marcada inasistencia a lecciones, entre otros. Esta unidad didáctica recopila la sistematización seguida para dicho fin y pretende convertirse en una herramienta a la mano para casos futuros que requieran de un seguimiento curricular más personalizado, como podía ser el de los estudiantes con necesidades especiales que en la actualidad se encuentran matriculados en la Sede Central en el segundo nivel de este programa. Los CONTENIDOS de esta unidad incluyen una sección titulada Teaching How to Write Term Papers que va dirigida al profesor a cargo y que incluye recomendaciones generales sugeridas a partir de nuestra experiencia. También la sección Theoretical Summaries la cual esquematiza los contenidos teóricos que el estudiante debe conocer al momento de estar elaborando su trabajo. Complementary Material le aporta al profesor a cargo tres herramientas más: a) Punctuation Patterns: los patrones de puntuación del inglés con sus respectivos ejemplos b) MLA Guidelines: ejemplos del uso del sistema MLA c) Rules for Syllabic Division: la normas de división silábica del inglés para utilizarlas en el trabajo en clase.

4 La sección EJERCICIOS se desarrolló con el formato denominado Sessions/Research Guides que consiste en una sistematización de todos los pasos necesarios que el estudiante debe seguir para elaborar un trabajo de investigación con todos los requisitos que exige el programa. Estos ejercicios no son independientes entre si, sino una secuencia de pasos que el estudiante deberá desarrollar en su totalidad para, al final, obtener el producto deseado. Si consideramos, una vez más, que esta unidad didáctica pretende orientar a estudiantes con necesidades especiales durante la elaboración de su trabajo de investigación, esta distribución de contenidos, le permitirá al profesor tener acceso al trabajo del estudiante en intervalos más cortos que los que regularmente se seguirían en circunstancias normales. Siguiendo la propuesta de distribución de contenidos sugerida en cronograma de trabajo que aparece al inicio de esta sección, el estudiante trabajará en clase con cada una de las actividades descritas en los apartados que hemos llamado Sessions. En casa el estudiante utiliza las guía de investigación (Research Guides) para continuar trabajando en su documento. La experiencia previa nos permite afirmar que los resultados de este proceso son altamente significativos, ya que al final del mismo los estudiante lograron documentos con una calidad suficiente según lo esperado, pese a que anteriormente NUNCA habían escrito ningún trabajo en inglés por ellos mismos. En la sección EVALUACIÓN se incluyen una propuesta posibles instrumentos para ser utilizados a lo largo del proceso, así como algunos comentarios sobre los criterios generales de evaluación a seguir. Finalmente la BIBLIOGRAFÍA incluye las referencias más representativas de toda las fuentes consultadas antes y durante el trabajo seguido tanto para la elaboración de esta unidad como para la ejecución del trabajo docente.

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II. OBJETIVO GENERAL Crear una metodología que le permita a un estudiante del último nivel de la carrera Bachillerato en la Enseñanza del Inglés con necesidades especiales producir un trabajo de investigación sobre una temática relacionada con su campo de estudio y que reúna los estándares de calidad en el dominio del idioma según el perfil académico esperado en su nivel.

III. OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS La aplicación de esta unidad didáctica le permitirá al estudiante: 1. Revisar las técnicas de investigación bibliográfica esperadas en su nivel 2. Delimitar un tema general según sus intereses personales 3. Usar el estilo bibliográfico MLA (Modern Language Association) en forma correcta. 4. Usar en forma correcta la puntuación específica para propósitos de investigación. 5. Utilizar las diferentes formas de transición entre párrafos y núcleos temáticos. 6. Desarrollar la lógica, la precisión lingüística, la claridad, la unidad, la coherencia y el desarrollo en la expresión escrita. 7. Usar la gramática inglesa en forma correcta al extremarse la atención hacia sus estructuras gramaticales 8. Documentar la investigación haciendo uso de técnicas válidas, sin peligro de caer en forma involuntaria en el plagio. 9.

Utilizar correctamente el uso de las referencias bibliográficas con citas.

10. Defender su punto de vista con hechos reales y opiniones personales.

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IV. METODOLOGÍA La metodología empleada abarca aspectos teóricos y prácticos relacionados al trabajo investigativo que el estudiante desarrollará durante el semestre. Para alcanzar todos los objetivos propuestos, al estudiante se le proporciona el material escrito en conjunto con diferentes actividades para lograr entrelazar la teoría y la práctica en una forma funcional, agradable y de aprovechamiento para el grupo. Se utilizarán diferentes tipos de materiales tales como artículos de publicaciones periódicas, segmentos de audio y video, así como la discusión en clase de la lectura asignada. En ese sentido, la participación del estudiante debe ser dinámica y sustancial. El estudiante también recibirá instrucciones específicas para realizar su trabajo en clase recopilado en sesiones de trabajo supervisadas. A partir de la información teórica de cada semana, los estudiantes iniciarán la aplicación de las distintas técnicas de investigación utilizando el tema general ya delimitado. Este trabajo se constituye en la parte más importante del proyecto y el cumplimiento satisfactorio de los objetivos del programa. Será responsabilidad de cada estudiante concluir el trabajo de cada sesión en casa, digitar la versión completa y entregarla a la profesora en la siguiente lección. Se debe corregir dicho documento una vez devuelto. Para trabajar la mayoría de las técnicas, será necesario recolectar distintos materiales bibliográficos y llevarlos a la sesión supervisada. La unidad contempla además una serie de asignaciones complementarias, denominadas guías de investigación orientadas a la conclusión satisfactoria de los objetivos propuestos. Estas actividades requieren la participación activa del estudiante tanto oral como escrita. Semana a semana, se deben realizar en casa y presentarlas junto con los materiales de trabajo utilizados para su correspondiente calificación. La primera versión del trabajo de investigación surgirá como resultado del contacto con un mínimo de 10 fuentes bibliográficas y de 3 a 5 fuentes primarias (entrevistas, aplicación de instrumentos, conferencias, etc). Todo el grupo investigará sobre el mismo tema general; sin embargo, cada estudiante deberá delimitarlo según sus intereses. La versión en borrador tendrá una extensión mínima de 10 páginas digitadas a doble espacio y bibliografía con formato MLA. La primera versión se calificará con base en su extensión y calidad de las ideas desarrolladas. El estudiante recibirá además las observaciones acerca del estilo, puntuación y el uso del idioma. La versión final del trabajo de investigación deberá incluir las correcciones señaladas y –de ser necesario- ampliar el desarrollo de las ideas que lo requieran. La versión final se calificará con base en su extensión, calidad de las ideas desarrolladas, el estilo, la puntuación y el uso del idioma. En la última semana lectiva ,cada estudiante expone los resultados de su investigación al resto del grupo.

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CONTENIDOS

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A. TEACHING HOW TO WRITE TERM PAPERS As one of the most common requirements for an ESL advanced course, a term paper is meant to meet some guidelines on how to go about research and writing. Besides increasing the students’ expertise in some particular substantive area, this type of assignment should become a tool to sharpen their analytic and writing skills. This because, once graduated, students will be judged on their written products (i.e. resumes, response papers to apply for scholarships and graduate programs, business reports, etc.). Then, the evaluation of academic research has to be based not only on the novelty of the topic being developed, but also in its clear organization and high standards of technical criteria such as neatness, grammar, and spelling. Poorly written papers with minimal analytical effort, numerous grammatical errors, misspellings and other related deficiencies set learners away from becoming proficient with the English Language usage. In order to get started, students must be explained on the importance of following instructions and not waiting until the very last minute to do the weekly assignments required for building content; they must also know what the teacher expects them to do since the very first class. The next step is to delimit the general topic1. Considering the curricular gaps and the lack of experience for writing papers of our academic population, it is suggested to provide a sole general topic to be delimited under the teacher’s supervision, as a way to monitor the fulfillment of the paper assignment. It is true to say that the more interested students are in a topic, the easier it will be for them to devote time and energy to study and write about it. The teacher then requires to set class time in order to create motivational activities to introduce the topic given2. The access to the primary and secondary research resources must be now established. Since the library holdings and Internet facilities from Sede Regional Chorotega are extremely limited, if compared with the ones from Sede Central, students may have trouble finding good sources to support a research paper. The teacher must be sure to provide tools to balance these limitations3. A paper without a solid foundation will inevitably be weak; that is why a variety of up-to-date materials and experts is with no doubt the mechanisms to let students be capable to start writing. When delimiting the topic of any research paper, it is important to promote the student’s creativity. Some tips for achieving so include: 1. To start out by reading generals on the chosen subject in order to establish its importance and the way to focus the research. 2. To look at the most recent books and journal articles since these sources usually contain a bibliography and notes that list earlier works on the subject. 3. To photocopy important material to assure permanent availability; it makes the process of taking notes much faster and less demanding. 1

When following the regular program, students are responsible for choosing their own topics; however, due to the limitations of our students, it is required to brainstorm mapping activities for such purpose. 2 Students at Sede Chorotega were asked to research about realia and the way to implement its use to teach ESL. 3 Tittles from the teacher’s personal collection along with resources from other libraries were temporarily placed at the students’ access.

9 Once the delimitation period is over4, there are two organizational issues to consider: the outline and the theoretical and analytic approach An outline serves to lay out the paper's structure by ensuring that it is complete and logical. The approach organizes the set of factors or variables that are important to the subject of the paper. For both organizational issues, the professor must assure the student is putting him/herself into the analysis. Summarizing findings does not mean research correctness; the students’ papers have to draw data and interpret it throughout. Students often assume knowledge on the part of the reader; it is necessary to be aware the reader may be a reasonably informed person but not an expert on the topic. Students should be told to include all relevant information that lets the reader know what the subject is and what it is hoped to be found out. Besides organization, the other hallmark of a good paper is clarity in writing. If a paper fails to communicate well, then it will have little impact. If the student follows the saying "write like you speak", the professor must show (review) the patterns for avoiding the colloquial use of English when searching for written proficiency. The choice of words, punctuation, and others are particularly vital in this review process. The students must write preferably more than one draft. In the case of proficiently low students, however, it is required to establish a controlled procedure for writing subsequent draft versions. The instructor has to discuss the topic and ideas with each student to refine the delimitation, identify resources, or plan the paper's organization. Technical errors and lapses in both argument and organization must be accurately corrected. The introduction is the key to let the reader know where the writer is headed and what he /she will accomplish. Since we are writing an advanced, theoretical paper, the introduction might well also include a review of the existing scholarship on the subject and become itself a section in which the data collection process is identified. The main body should have a logical organization; it is often a good idea to divide the main body into sections designated by headings and subheadings. The conclusion should sum up the found data and stress the supportive evidence analysis. When grading a term paper, the following style considerations must be observed: 1. Sentence structure and length. 2. Use of active voice verbs. 3. Use of standard lexicon. 4. Adverbial and adjectival clauses. 5. Paragraph length. About technical matters, students must evidence domain of: 1. Lexical choice (spelling, contractions, abbreviations) 2. Semantics (gender-specific pronouns) 3. Syntax (sentence fragments, infinitives, subject-verb agreement, verb tense) 4. Mechanics (specific punctuation, indentation)

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Expected by the end of the second week

10 All good research papers rely on information compiled and analyzed by others. Observing for the students’ proper citation of sources is mandatory if not wanting to fail responsibilities. Without regular and complete citations, further exploration by your reader may turn even impossible. The preparation of the "References" or "Works Cited" section must start since the second week of classes and get completed throughout the body of the work. Students must be told the purpose to create new knowledge written into a term paper carries the responsibility of never committing either plagiarism or non-academic recycling (submitting a paper due in another course). Very often a chosen topic is too broad or unknown; as college researchers, our students ought to continue evaluating the practicality, originality and relevance of the papers with our permanent guidance.

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B. THEORETICAL SUMMARIES

I. Choosing a Topic Purpose of a research

- to learn more - to get answers - to explore into a new area

A topic …

- has to raise a build-in issue (i.e. definitions, historical facts) - might have a build-in bias - must cite opinions of outside sources (i.e. experts) - should address a problem that can be interpreted - could explore a sensitive issue

Narrowing a general - by naming subtopics (i.e. items in a list) topic… - by clustering - by asking questions → to address a specific issue → to provoke an answer → to produce a thesis sentence

Research questions may set…

THE THESIS SENTENCE

1. A well focused and limited topic 2. A topic that raises an issue 3. A topic that presents a problem worthy of examination 4. A topic that invites research into outside sources

– changes the topic or research question into a statement to support the research with - presents the problem to be examined with the evidence - should go beyond the obvious - should control and focus the research - tells the reader your purpose - can be narrowed at any time as evidence leads you to new and different issues - has to express you position - must be a declarative sentence - has to reflect a fact - establishes an investigative, inventive edge - points forward to the conclusion

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Framing a research proposal (3 elements)

1.Purpose

Explanatory

- reviewing, itemized, factual - an information provider - setting definitions and sources

Analytic

- classification - the effects on people - examined methods - contents

Persuasive

- A message of conviction - A defense of a position - condemning or arguing in favor/against

2. Audience interested in…

- an academic understanding - evidence of background - your point of view - Then you have to…

- But NOT

3. Your role as a researcher

Your voice

- exercise caution - warn, be vigilant - maintain contact - consider consequences / results

- retell known facts - bore your audience

- the nature of your work - questions - examination, exploration

Your proposal

- Referring to authorities - Offering quotations - Providing charts / graphs - A sample of academic honesty

Possible roles as writer

- defender - arguer - observer

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II. Using References Three-Phase Search

Library Services

1º Preliminary Search

- card catalog - reference books - bibliographies - indexes - computer sources

2º Narrowing

- by browsing - by skimming books / articles - with citations about further reading

3º

- books - essays - articles - computer printouts - abstracts

Reading & Note-Taking

1. Circulation Desk

- Customer service - Special collection

6. Reserve - valuable sources Desk - short loan periods

2. Computer Facilities

7. Card Catalog – Interfiled resources

3. Reference - bibliographies - indexes

8. Stack

– Sources with limited access

9. Interlibrary Loans 4. Periodical - newspapers Section - magazines - microfilm 5. Vertical – clipped articles Files - by topic

Using Card Catalogs

- MLA System (See next page) - Dewey Decimal Classification (page 32)

Computer Search

- PAC (On-line Public Access Catalog) - CD-ROM Facilities - Data Bases - Abstracts - Monthly Updating

10. Duplicating Services

- coping machines - copyright laws

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III. In-Text Citations In-text citations

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Make reference to sources within the text Without a raised superscript numeral Different from footnotes Purposes - To display source material and give it credit properly - To show the correct use of quotations and paraphrasing - To demonstrate the writer’s research into the subject

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Types

- Begin with the author’s name and give the page number inside parenthesis - Write the author’s name and page number at the end along with a signal to state where the borrowing begins

- No author listed

- Non-Print sources Types - Citing someone already quoted

1. Cite

- the title of the report or magazine, - the publisher or - the corporate body 2. Cite the page number - a speech, song lyrics, an interview, a T.V. segment, etc. - Cite the name of the source n a way the page number may not be expected

- cite both speaker and writer - add only the writer’s work within the bibliography

- Citing a textbook or anthology

- The cross reference of the anthology must be cited in full - A comprehensive entry must be added if the work includes its independent data.

- For adding extra information

- 2 or more works of the same author

- Abbreviation in parenthesis - Cited in full in the text

- Several authors on the same topic

- Last name - Page Number

Punctuation

- Page number outside the quotation marks but inside period - No abbreviations for page number (such as “p.” or “ pp.”) are required - Commas and periods go inside while colons and semicolons outside - Special cases - to interrupt a quotation in order to insert a speaker - a single quotation within a regular one

For long quotations

- A long quotation has 4 or more lines must have an indentation of 10 space - No quotation marks are required in this case - The parenthical citation goes after the final period, not inside

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IV. Taking Notes Direct Quotations

Summaries

- THE EXACT WORDS OF THE SOURCE - with an in-text citation (author’s name and page number) - outside the quotation marks but inside the final period - common knowledge or trivial information should not be quoted

- CONDENSED IDEAS RESPECTING THE REGISTER - Types

Types of Notes

1. Plot summary

- from a complete book

2. Review

- a few essentials about the content - without a page number

3. Abstract

- about the own paper - to catch the reader’s attention

Paraphrase - IN YOUR OWN WORDS BUT KEEPING A FEW LITERAL ONES - retain the original meaning - Rules - an in-text citation is required - use about the same number of words - use quotation marks for any literal phrase Personal Notes

Types of Sources

1. Primary

- TO RECORD THE OWN THOUGHTS

- the original words from the source - to be quoted

2. Secondary - Words about the source (i.e. reviews, biographies, etc.) - to be paraphrased - Hints to be - always quote the section pertaining to your point accurate - combine related sources into a single paragraph Altering the Sources

- Plagiarism

- a conscious behavior - general knowledge is an exception - Examples - someone else’s paper as own - source material without quotation marks - paraphrasing without in-text citation - summaries without a clear reference - rearranged sentences from a source - the lack of a “Works Cited” Section

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V. Outlining A personal guide to the issues raised by your research proposal 1. A rough list Previous Steps Rough Outline

(key words)

2. A few questions (initial answers for the preliminary draft notes) 3. The investigative plan

4. Ranking issues

Purposes -

- reasons for writing a paper - to remind you about the purpose

- major issues (headlines) - Supporting ideas (subheads)

To enable you arrange the note cards to identify a need for material To draft portions of the paper To discover the strengths and weaknesses of your research

- A requirement for writing a complete research paper - Headings with clear and logical categories and several levels of subheadings - Not a rigid/inflexible structure but one subject to change Formal Outline

Introduction

- Preceded by the title - Quotations - Anecdotes - Definitions - Statistics

Parts Body - Comparison - Analysis - Evidence - Traced historical events Conclusion - Assumptions - Exceptions to a prevailing point of view - Reaffirmation of the thesis

Types

Topic - Noun phrases Outline - Gerund phrases - Infinitive phrases Sentence - To speed up the writing process Outline - It requires more time but also complete ideas from the beginning

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VI. Writing the Body General - It includes the major issues of the outline Characteristics - At least 2 issues must be developed - The average ranges in 3-4 issues - Short your plot summaries (one paragraph long) - Relate plot summary to your thesis sentence - Do not retell cited info but make a point - Write 2-3 paragraphs per strategy in order to draft your body - Cite all your sources but avoid too clutter your text with citations

Procedure

Strategies

Chronology

- a trace of historical events explained in a sequence of time - The time for the causes of consequences

Cause & Effect

- the reasons for circumstances - The examination of consequences

Comparison & Contrast

- The same subject vs. different periods of time - Positive vs. negative issues, etc

Classification & Analysis of Various Issues

- The development of evidence - The support for the thesis sentence

Definition

-To expand upon a complex subject

Process Analysis

- The necessary steps to reach the desired end

Question & Answer Evidence from Source Material

Effective Topic Sentences

Writing paragraphs of substance

- Framing questions to answer it with specific details/evidence

- Authorities - Quotations - Paraphrasing - Summaries

- The stage for the full development of ideas/issues - Setting the requirement of classification and explanation - Suggestions - Using a question - To allow the writer expand it with chronological information - With a well-developed defense - To introduce the academic scholarship on a subject - From broad data into specific details -

enough evidence to support each topic sentence Half page long With a topic sentence plus the development of all the techniques

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VII. Writing the Conclusion - Techniques to build a conclusion of substance

- Reaffirming the topic - Expressing the primary ideas - Supplying a few related quotations in defense of the position - Using an anecdote - Taking an exception to a prevailing point of view - Discussing data, statistics and/or evidence - Compare past events to present situation

- It must

- restate the thesis statement - show the relevance of the final statements - use a variety of resources to convince the audience - compare outdated ideas in light of contemporary thinking - let the reader

- recognize your perspective, argument and contention - have a new level of perception about the topic

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VIII. Writing the Introduction - more than identifying the subject - it must establish

4 basic parts

- the significance of an issue - your efforts in preparing the paper

- Identifying the Subject

- Thesis statement starting (the traditional beginning) - define key terminology - use an anecdote - supply data, statistics, evidence, etc. - ask for questions - relate well-known facts with your approach

- Background information

- the historical nature of the topic - bibliographical data on a person - general evidence - Literary projects

- a brief summary of the novel /poem - details about the plot, characters, setting, etc

- Quotation by an authority - To show the importance of the subject

- Establishing the - State the issue to be examined problem - Forms - question - assertion - denial - assumption - challenge to already existing conditions - Thesis sentence

-

Usually at the end Convections about the topic Advances of your position Limiting the scope of study Advancing theory about the issue Inviting the reader to the argument

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C. COMPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

Punctuation Patterns (From Baugh, L. Sue. How to Write Term Papers and Reports) Pattern 1:

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + PERIOD Example: Physicians are concerned about the rising death rate from cancer.

Pattern 2:

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + COMMA + COORDINATING CONJUNCTION + INDEPENDENT CLAUSE The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. Example: Physicians are concerned about the rising death rate from cancer, but they don't know the reasons for it

Pattern 3:

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + SEMICOLON + INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + PERIOD Example: Physicians are concerned about the rising death rate from cancer; they are unsure of its cause.

Pattern 4:

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + SEMICOLON + INDEPENDENT MARKER + COMMA+ INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + PERIOD. Independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also. Example: Physicians are concerned about the rising death rate from cancer; therefore, they have called for more research into its causes.

Pattern 5:

DEPENDENT MARKER + DEPENDENT CLAUSE + COMMA + INDEPENDENT CLAUSE+ PERIOD Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, then, after, as, as if. Example: Because physicians are concerned about the rising death rate from cancer, they have called for more research into its causes.

Pattern 6:

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + DEPENDENT MARKER + DEPENDENT CLAUSE + PERIOD Example: Physicians are concerned about the rising death rate from cancer because it is a contemporary illness.

Pattern 7:

FIRST PART OF AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + COMMA + NON-ESSENTIAL CLAUSE OR PHRASE + COMMA + REST OF THE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + PERIOD Example: Many physicians, including both pediatricians and family practice doctors, are concerned about the rising death rate from cancer.

Pattern 8:

FIRST PART OF AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + ESSENTIAL CLAUSE OR PHRASE + REST OF THE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE +PERIOD Example: Many physicians who are concerned about the rising death rate from cancer have called for more research into its causes.

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More about Commas 1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. Example: The store was closed, but the customers refused to leave. 2. Use commas after introductory clauses, phrases, or words that come before the main clause. Example: Because her leg was broken, she was unable to attend the meeting 3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Example: If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense? 4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that Example: The candidate who had the least money lost the election. 5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series. Example: The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government. 6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives. Example: My mom has an easy, happy smile. 7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift. Example: The old man was merely ignorant, not stupid. 8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Example: Rita waved at Noel, who was laughing joyously. 9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names. Example: Sarah B. Ruthie, MD, will be the principal speaker of the ceremony at Birmingham, England. 10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation. Example: In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!" 11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading. Example: To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol. 12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb. Example: An twenty-year old in China, is now considered an adult. (incorrect)

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M.L.A. Guidelines for Bibliographic Data (From Gibaldi, Joseph et .al. MLA Handbook.) 1. A book with a single author Booth, Wayne C. The Complete Guide about the Rhetoric of Fiction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. 2. A book 2 or more authors Burn, Barbara. , et al. Higher Education in Nine Countries. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971. Burn, Barbara and Sue Smith. Higher Education in Nine Countries. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971. 3. A book with a corporate author Higher Education for American Democracy. By: Commission on Higher Education. Washington D.C.: GLP, 1947. 4. An anonymous book The World of Learning. London: European Press, 1975. 5. A work in several volumes or parts Wallace, Renee. A History of Modern Criticism. Vol. III. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987. 6. A article inside an anthology Lewis, Antoine. “Facts on Descartes.” In: The Whole History of French Literature. Paris: Doormat, 1948. 7. An article or section inside an encyclopedia “Pope Joan Paul II.” Encyclopedia Britannica. 1976 ed. 8. An edition Cook, Don, ed. The First Folio of Shakespeare. New York: Norton Press, 1988. 9. A translation Dostoievsky, Feodor. Crime and Punishment. Trans. Jessie Coulson and George Gibian. New York: Penguin Books, 1990. 10. A pamphlet Modern Language Academy. A Guide to Learn Spanish in Costa Rica. San Jose: EUNED, 2001. 11. An article from a newspaper Boody, Jane. “Diversity.” New York Times. April 24. 1988: C2. 12. An article from a magazine. Chromes, Angela. “Dealing with Dyslexia.” Newsweek. March 22. 1983: 56-59.

23 13. A lecture Dorian, Madeleine. “The Style and the Story”. University of Costa Rica: Modern Languages School, October 2nd. 1998. 14. A film Bertolucci, Bernardo, dir. Last Tango in Paris. With Marlon Brando and Maria Schneider. Universal Pictures, 1972. 15. A musical composition Beethoven, Ludwig Van. Symphony No. 7 in B Minor. Op 92. 16. A television program The First Americans. Narr. Hugh Downs. Writ and Prod. Craig Fisher. N B C News Special. March 21 1999. 17. A phone interview Bonnet, Andrew. Telephone interview. May 7. 1995. 18. A personal interview Curtis, Alex. Personal interview. July 27. 2003. 19. An editorial “The Spirit of 77.” Editorial. Washington Post. January 23. 1997, Sec A, 22. 20. A source from Internet Lewis, Antoine. “Facts on Victor Hugo and Other Writers.” In: The Whole History of French Literature Page. February 25, 2002.

24

General Rules for Syllabic Division Since the syllabic division in English is phonological, it requires dictionary guidance. All English words are divided according to their pronunciation. The simplest way is to know how to divide a word is to look for it in the dictionary. If a dictionary is not available, follow the following hints: 1. Never divide monosyllables Examples: break thought 2. Monosyllabic affixes are independent syllables Examples: un- break- a-ble fast-ly un-known 3. Always split double consonants in separate syllables Examples: com-mu-ni-ca-tion op-po-site 4. Observe for “hidden” phonemes Examples: val-u-a-ble mu-sic 5. Separate consonant clusters Examples: i-so-met- ric rhyth-m

25

EJERCICIOS

26

SYLLABUS (CRONOGRAMA DE TRABAJO) Week 1

Contents Choosing a topic

Session

Research Guide

2

Choosing a topic

Session 1

3

Using references

4

Session 2

5

Using references (MLA Guidelines) In-text citations

6

Taking notes

Session 3

7

Outlining

Session 4

Research Guide 3

8

Writing the body

Session 5

Research Guide 4

9

Writing the body

Session 6

Research Guide 5

10

Writing the body

Session 7

Research Guide 6

11

Writing the body

Research Guide 1

Research Guide 2

12

FIRST VERSION

13

Writing the conclusion

14

Writing the conclusion

Session 8

Research Guide 7

15

Writing the introduction

Session 9

Research Guide 8

16

Writing the introduction

Session 10

Research Guide 9

17

Proofreading

18

Evaluation

Research Guide 10 FINAL VERSION

27

SESSIONS / RESEARCH GUIDES

SESSION 1 General Instructions 1. Answer these questions in detail 1) What is the topic of your research? 2) What is the purpose of my research? 3) What do I want this paper to prove? Why? How? 4) Can I tell the reader anything new or different? 5) Do I have a solution to the problem? Which one? Why? 6) What exactly is my theory about this subject? 2. Change your topic into a research question. 3. Explain the purpose of your research as a personal project and as a class project

RESEARCH GUIDE 1 General Instructions 1. Prepare your initial working hypothesis for the term paper you are above to start. In order to do it, first answer the following questions: a. What is your broad topic? b. What is your narrow/delimited topic? c. State the 2-3 subordinated aspects you could develop in depth d. Do you consider your research proposal original enough to interest your audience? 2.

State the audience this research is going to be directed to. Why should they be aware of your proposal?

3.

What role are you going to play as a researcher? Why?

28

SESSION 2 General Instructions 1. Write a previous version of your bibliography for the research in alphabetical order *****BE SURE TO KEEP ADDING NEW SOURCES. ***** 2. Select five sources (at least 2 in Spanish) and write the corresponding notes on their content. 3. Which source(s) do you think to be more promising? Why? 4. What kind of sources do you still need? Why? 5. Where have not you looked for yet? What are you planning to do about it?

RESEARCH GUIDE 2 General Instructions 1. Evaluate your sources to observe for their convenience for the content you are planning to work with. 2. Below write the complete MLA references for 5 of your articles along with a short list of the aspects of your working hypothesis each one includes related information for. 3. Answer the following questions. A. Why do instructors assign term papers? B. Provide your personal input over the following quotation: "The purpose of research is not simply to retrieve data, but to participate in a conversation about it" (Brent 109). C. How can you define and also avoid the following academic sins? a) Plagiarism b) Assignment recycling c) Premature cognitive commitment

29

SESSION 3 General Instructions 1. Answer the following questions by providing basis to support your points. a) What is the audience of your paper? (Consider all the options) b) What do you want to persuade it of? c) Are you appealing to your audience’s emotions, reason or ethics? How much evidence did you use to do so? d) Which arguments could your audience have to refute your stand? e) How are you planning to treat such refutation? 2. State the DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS for your paper 3. State the INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS for your paper

RESEARCH GUIDE 3 General Instructions 1. Type all your quotations; cut-and-paste is not allowed. Include the corresponding in-text citations. 2. Write 3-4 sentence long PERSONAL NOTES about At least 8 quotations from sources in English 2 quotations / segments from non-traditional bibliographical sources 3. Write 2 more personal notes about two or more quotations from additional sources being sure to observe for the quality of your comments.

30

SESSION 4 General Instructions 1. Write a plot summary of 5 of your most valuable sources 2. Write a paraphrase of 5 different sources 3. Write one reading journal recording 3 quotations, 3 questions and 3 observations and/or associations that move you as the reader. 4. Now use this information to write your first insights to create a research product that offers new, interesting, and personally satisfying knowledge. Help yourself with the comments about the samples of realia presented in class.

RESEARCH GUIDE 4 General Instructions 1. Prepare 3 more reading journals with the same format requested in the previous session. 2. Write two 20-line paragraphs about the relationship your 4 journals have in common. Be sure to be critical at your comments. 3. Craft your preliminary version of thesis (if having one) and a general comment on the working hypothesis you are planning to follow.

31

SESSION 5 General Instructions 1. Take notes about the content of the following video segments5. Be sure to include the corresponding bibliographical information. Rewrite and organize your notes. 2.

Write your personal notes about at least 3 of the video segments. Your comments must be oriented to the content of your research.

RESEARCH GUIDE 5 General Instructions 1. Write 3 paraphrased references of your new sources for your delimited topic. 2. Search for at least five examples of realia from cable television broadcasting6. Take notes about their convenience for learning English being sure to delimit the level, type of exercises and complementary use they have. 3. Write about the relationship these new sources have with your working hypothesis Include at least three possible aspects about its usefulness.

5

6

Living in America. Narr. Pete Martinez.. A&E Mundo (Documentary), September 2001 Creative EFL Teaching. Narr. Sue Nuttings . Nickelodeon, August, 1999.

Appointments for Language Laboratory Facilities must be arranged at time. Students must be additionally advised on possible series or programs they should search in.

32

SESSION 6 General Instructions 1. Once you have underlined/highlighted your sources, list them by title as they contribute to support your research. 2. In the following chart, write the numbers of the sources as corresponds to their content Cause & Effect

Comparison & Contrast

Chronology

Definition

Process Analysis

Question Answering

3. Write the names of the authorities & experts your sources utter; be sure to include the number of source within parenthesis. 4. Answer the following questions using short answers a. Which type of source do you have the most? b. Which type of source do you have less? c. Mention 3 strengths of your sources d. Is there any weakness regarding your source selection? Yes /No. Which one? e. What is the purpose of your research proposal? f. Do the sources have a direct relationship with it? Yes /No. Why g. Is there any definition missing? Yes /No. Which one? h. How many expects are cited? Do you need any more? i. Can you shorten your long quotations? Yes /No. How? j. Are your non-traditional sources primary or secondary? 5. Write a 15-20 line reflexive comment about the quality, usefulness, and content of the sources you have. Be sure to have the answers of the previous questionnaire in mind while writing.

RESEARCH GUIDE 6 General Instructions 1. Provide your paper with a logical order having in mind you have to hand it in for a grade. 2. For next class, come ready to meet your teacher for questions7

7

On the 11th week, students get an individual appointment in order to be proofread.

33

SESSION 7 General Instructions 1. Write a list of 15 questions about aspects you want to add your research with. Since this questionnaire is going to be used as a primary source of information for your paper, be sure to have it read by your teacher before going home. 2. Analyze what else your paper needs to be reflexive, analytical and personalized enough and write a short comment about it to be discussed in class. 3. Think about the writing strategies that have been helping to extract information from the sources.

RESEARCH GUIDE 7 General Instructions Now you have the first version of your paper returned and graded, identify at least 3 examples of sentences meeting the following style and technical considerations to be immediately corrected8: Style Considerations 1. Sentence structure (too long, complex sentences resembling Spanish structures) 2. Too many sentences with adverbial or adjectival clauses or phrases. 3. Watch your paragraph length. Paragraphs over one page in length are usually too long. 4. Redundant statements or more than one major idea. 5. Standard English (avoid clichés such as ugh, yeah, gee…). Technical Matters 1. Avoid sentence fragments. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb. 2. Check your spelling 3. Make sure subjects and verbs agree 4. Be careful of verb tense. Avoid the only use of present tense. Use past tense, future, perfect, etc. 5. Do not split infinitives 6. Avoid the use of contractions (too informal for a formal writing assignment) 7. Check punctuation (See Punctuation Patterns)

8

These considerations must include the different wrong structures he/she has found at all first versions. The ones included here summarize the typical language problems from my ESL students at Sede Chorotega (2003-2004)

34

SESSION 8 General Instructions 1. Once you have all your questionnaires answered, read them contrastively9. 2. Answer the following questions: a. Is the audience familiar with the theoretical information about your topic? b. Which opinions or comments do you consider having an in- citation-value? c. Which answers did surprise you the most? d. How would you describe the general perception your classmates have about your topic? e. Is there any piece of information that helps you support your thesis statement f. Is there any answer related to your personal perception of the topic? g. What do your classmates need to know about your topic that you may tell them about? h. Which contributions is your research project going to provide your audience with?

RESEARCH GUIDE 8 General Instructions 1. Write a 30-40 sentence reflexive comment about the general results from your field work (questionnaires). 2. Answer these questions in order to use the content of the answers to start building the conclusions for your paper: a. What is the main component of your research project? b. What is your personal opinion about the content you have so far? c. How easy/hard was it to find examples of realia? d. Was there any valuable anecdote somewhere in your project you can rescue at the conclusion? e. Which writing strategies to build the body did you use the most? f. How did you examine or contrast the positive and negative sides of one of the major issues about your topic? g. What is the answer of your research question (Session 1) and how can you defend it in the conclusion? h. Where in your paper can your reader realize your efforts in preparing it? i. Which well-known facts do you make reference to? j. What contribution have you provided your audience with?

9

Due to the necessity to monitor the quality of performance of my Sede Chorotega students, they were asked to answer each other’s questionnaires home. Under different circumstances, traditional field work is much more suggested .

35

SESSION 9 General Instructions 1. Having in mind the content the introduction of your paper requires, brainstorm about the concept of realia you had before starting your research and the application you have been be giving it to. Consider aspects such as: a. The monetary cost b. Its availability c. The ways for collecting d. Its contextualization within a classroom (population, level, topic, activities) 2. Review the following information in order to update its content: a. The delimitation of the topic b. Your working thesis c. The quality of your sources d. The way you use to pique your reader’s curiosity e. The immediate responses to your reader’s questions about the topic f. The original imput offering information and insights of substance.

RESEARCH GUIDE 9 General Instructions 1. Answer these questions as a way of adding more information to your introduction (or conclusion): a. Can you affirm you have found outdated ideas in light being applied nowadays in regards to your topic? How? b. What previous experience of your college years did move you to choose your topic? c. Where is the significance of your topic established? d. Is there any key terminology defined in your project? e. Which background information have you stated at the introduction? f. Did you include information from experts on the field? g. What does the opening of your paper gives evidence for?

36

SESSION 10 General Instructions In order to test the learning process already followed, in groups of 3-4 students, you are going to chat about the answers for these questions: 1. How useful did articles from magazines turn to establish your point? 2. What do the independent research projects have to be about? 3. How much error correction did your software guide you to? 4. How did you store your bibliographic material through the writing period? 5. What changes did you do to the content with when transferring your notes into your word processor? 6. What changes did you introduce at the global revision of the whole work? 7. Where do the ideas come from for research projects carried out at graduate programs? 8. What roles do language and literacy play in the research process? 9. How can classroom instruction build on knowledge, experiences, cognitive skills, language acquisition opportunities, and academic background that researchers need in their projects? 10. How soon do you have to start working on the research?

RESEARCH GUIDE 10 General Instructions Once you have added all the feedback to your final version, answer these questions as the last review process to be follow before handing in your paper for a grade. 1. What is the most frequent verb tense in your paper? Does this tense have any relation with the nature of your topic? 2. Which writing strategies to build the body did you use the most? 3. Did you write in first or third person singular? 4. Does this syntactic selection have any relation with the nature of your topic? 5. Which words that you commonly misuse have you corrected and overcorrected through the process?

Finally, organize an oral presentation for your paper considering not only the mandatory content matters but also the personalized points of view about both the research and leaning processes.

37

EVALUACIÓN

38

CRITERIOS DE EVALUACIÓN A CONSIDERAR DURANTE EL DESARROLLO DE LOS CONTINIDOS DE LA UNIDAD Esta unidad didáctica se centra en las experiencias de aprendizaje que van surgiendo de la mano con el cumplimiento de los objetivos. Por tanto, su evaluación debe contribuir a las capacidades especiales necesarias para la obtención del producto final. Por tratarse de una serie de planes de lección vinculados entre sí, con el ámbito de aplicación y la secuencia la adquisición de habilidades técnicas se pretende que los alumnos no solo descubran la pertinencia de los procedimientos que se les solicitan sino que además un sentido de responsabilidad académica. Por esta razón , las distintas actividades deben ofrecerle al estudiante posibilidades potenciales de lograr el desarrollo de las destrezas y actitudes esperadas en su nivel de competencia del idioma inglés. La evaluación también debe considerar no solo la capacidad organizativa del estudiante sino la factibilidad de lo solicitado en función de los recursos disponibles, especialmente si el profesor se encuentra en situaciones similares a las descritas al inicio de esta unidad. Se debe velar por la continuidad del trabajo realizado, así como por la calidad de trabajo en profundidad de información. Para ese fin, resultan necesarias las estimaciones del tiempo (cronograma) aún cuando su calificación siempre irá en función del avance de estudiante. Aquellos estudiantes acostumbrados al planeamiento de último minuto y actividades supletorias deberán encontrar en la evaluación de su trabajo una balanza entre la conducta previa y los nuevos estándares calidad. La actividades de esta unidad permiten visualizar y valorar lo que ocurre durante y como producto del proceso de aprendizaje en términos de logros alcanzados. Los diversos tipos de contenidos implican diversas estrategias evaluativas que vayan más allá de la simple medición del rendimiento. Esto implica recurrir a un proceso sistemático de reflexión y retroalimentación de la práctica que sea holístico, contextualizado, cualitativo y que apunte a un diálogo formativo. Deberá también recoger información, no solo sobre dificultades y vacíos sino además de los logros con valor referencial a los objetivos didácticos del estudiante como futuro educador en el área de la enseñanza del inglés. La evaluación debe velar porque la información pueda reunirse de varias maneras; el estudiante debe visitar lugares y hablar con la gente con respuestas divergentes que fomenten la retroalimentación propia. Debe además enfatizar la reflexión y la aplicación de conocimientos adquiridos. El profesor propiciará un intercambio creador a fin de que los estudiantes vayan construyendo y reconstruyendo su producto a lo largo del curso y así lograr aprendizajes significativos, enlazados y relacionados con su conocimiento general del inglés. Si bien es cierto la evaluación es normativa, -por estar al pendiente del rendimiento de los alumnos-, y sumativa, -dados los cortes parciales evaluación de productos-, el profesor utilizará a toda costa una evaluación formativa cuyo común denominador será lo que sucede durante el proceso. Esto con el fin de lograr hacer ajustes según las necesidades particulares de cada estudiante. Al final se valora lo alcanzado por cada alumno en relación con los objetivos establecidos y se le evalúa de acuerdo a su ritmo y respetando las diferencias individuales. La primera experiencia de investigación del estudiante se debe planear con sumo cuidado ya que con este aprendizaje cognitivo, no sólo lograremos rodear al alumno de una bonita experiencia sino de herramientas que le permitan resolver situaciones concretas. La vivencia de este proceso de

39 construcción y reconstrucción de conocimiento debe ir acompañada de una secuencia de evaluación que fomente la habilidad para la discusión, el registro de juicios y la observación de conductas relacionadas con el rendimiento. Los instrumentos de evaluación se aplican al final de la unidad por dos razones: una teórica y otra práctica. Si bien es cierto la evaluación se debe basar en los objetivos de la unidad, por cuento debe ser intrínseca a dichos contenidos y al proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje, la misma se debe hacerse explicita al final del plan para que esté en equilibro con la calidad del producto final. Por último, el profesor deberá asegurar un espacio para informar sobre los resultados de la evaluación por escrito utilizando instrumentos de trabajo que especifiquen las situaciones y muestras de trabajo bien realizado en función de los objetivos importantes y una retroalimentación de los procesos por mejorar.

40

Universidad Nacional Prof. Bianchi Benavides

Name: _____________________________ Grade: _____________________

Session# ________ a. Format

b.

c.

10 pts

Syntax

5.00 ⇒

Mechanics

2.00 ⇒

Spelling

3.00 ⇒

Content

20 pts

Completeness

5.00 ⇒

Application of the Research technique(s)

5.00 ⇒

Use of material

5.00 ⇒

Idea development

5.00 ⇒

In-class performance

10 pts

Completeness

5.00 ⇒

Material assignment

5.00 ⇒

Total

40 pts

⇒

%

Final Grade: GENERAL COMMENTS: ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________

41 Universidad Nacional Prof. Bianchi Benavides

Name: _____________________________ Grade: ______________________

Research Guide # ________ a. Format

b.

c.

10 pts

Syntax

5.00 ⇒

Mechanics

2.00 ⇒

Spelling

3.00 ⇒

Content

20 pts

Completeness

5.00 ⇒

Research technique(s)

5.00 ⇒

Use of material

5.00 ⇒

Idea development

5.00 ⇒

Completeness

5.00 ⇒

Feedback

20 pts

Syntax

10.00 ⇒

Semantics

5.00 ⇒

Spelling

5.00 ⇒

Total

50 pts

⇒

%

Final Grade: GENERAL COMMENTS: ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________

42

BIBLIOGRAFÍA

43 Arnaudet, Martin and Mary E. Barret. Paragraph Development. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey: Regents-Prentice Hall, 1990. Barnet, Sylvan. Critical Thinking and Writing: A Brief Guide to Argument. Boston: Bedford, 1993. Baugh, L. Sue. How to Write Term Papers and Reports. Chicago: NTC Publishing Group, 1995. Brent, Doug. Reading as Rhetorical Invention: Knowledge,Persuasion and the Teaching of ResearchBased Writing. Urbana: NCTE, 1992. Burack, Sylvia, ed. The Writer’s Handbook. Boston: The Writers, 1997. Eichler, Margarite. Non-existing Research Methods Massachusetts: Allen & Unwin, Inc, 1988. Elbow, Peter. Writing Without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Frank, Marcela. Writing as Thinking. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents, Inc, 1990. Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1995. Goldberg, Natalie. Wild Mind: Living the Writer’s Life. New York: Bantam, 1990. Guinn, Dorothy & Daniel Marder. A Spectrum of Rhetoric. Boston: Little Brown Limited, 1987. Klauser, Henriette Anne. Writing on Both Sides of the Brain: Breakthrough Techniques for People Who Write. Philadelphia: Harper, 1986. Kirszner, Laurie and Stephen Mandell. Patterns for College Writing. New York: St. Martin Press, 1998. Lester, James D. The Research Paper Handbook. Illinois: Good Year Books, 1992. Miller, Casey. The Handbook of Non-Existing Writing. New York: Harper Perennial, 1988. Muller, Lavonne, et al. Creative Writing: Forms and Techniques. Boston: National Textbook Company: 1990. Pearman, Daniel. Guide to Rapid Revision. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993. Quitman, Lyn, et, al. Steps in Composition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1979. Reid, Joy M. The Process of Composition. New York: Prentice Hall Regents, Inc, 1988. Reid, Joy M. and Margaret Lindstrom. The Process of Paragraph Writing. New York: Prentice Hall Regents, Inc, 1985.

44 Reinking, James A, et al. Improving College Writing. New York: St. Martin Press, 1981. Rico, Gabriele. Writing the Natural Way: Using Right Brain Techniques to Release Your Expressive Powers. Los Angeles: Houghton, 1983. Smalley, Regina, et al. Good Measures, A Practice Book to Accompany Rules of Thumb. New York: McGraw Hill, 1996. Smalley, Regina, et al. Refining Composition Skills. New York: Mc Millar Publishing Co., 1982. Sorenson, Sharon. The Research Paper: A Contemporary Approach. New York: AMSCO, 1994. Strunk, William. The Elements of Style. New York: McMillan, 1979. Ueland, Brenda. If You Want to Write. Minnesota: Greywolf, 1987. Winker, Anthony. Rhetoric Made Plain. Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, 1984. Zemelman, Steven. A Community of Writers. Portsmouth : Heinemann Educational Books , Inc, 1988.