UNIVERSIDAD VERACRUZANA FACULTAD DE IDIOMAS Licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa

Trabajo Practico Educativo:

LEXICAL DIFFICULTIES IN THE TRANSLATION OF FOUR TEXTS: -The rise of Rome -The Roman Empire -Rome: an imperial city -A Roman Landscape

1000-100BC AD1-300 100B.C.-AD400 50BC-AC400

zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSR

in Chapter 5: Empires of the Old World Past Worlds: Atlas of

Archeology

1997, Harper Collins, London

Que para obtener el titulo de: LICENCIADO EN LENGUA INGLESA Presenta

Hector Ocejo Contreras

Director del Trabajo: Adriana Evelin Garrido Hernandez.

HUMANIDADES U.V;

42e

Xalapa-Enriquez, Veracruz, Febrero 2013

Agradecimientos: A Dios. Por todas las bendiciones y por permitirme llegar al logro de mis objetivos, por la salud, y por su infinita bondad y amor. A mi Esposa Elizabeth y a nuestros Hijos Hector, Elizabeth, y Nicolas, por brindarme esa inspiracion para concluir el presente trabajo y sobre todo por su amor. A mis padres Juanita y Gabriel por sus consejos y ejemplos de perseverancia y constancia que los caracterizan y que me han sabido mostrar para salir adelante. A mi Asesor y Director del Trabajo, Maestra Adrian Garrido, por su apoyo y consejo profesional durante la realizacion del presente trabajo.

UNIVERSIDAD VERACRUZANA FACULTAD DE IDIOMAS

LEXICAL DIFFICULTIES IN THE TRANSLATION OF FOUR TEXTS The rise of Rome 1000-1OOBC The Roman Empire AD1-300 Rome: an imperial city 100B.C.-AD400 A Roman Landscape 50BC-AC400 in Chapter 5 Empires of the Old World Past Worlds: Atlas of Archeology 1997, Harper Collins, London

Licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa Trabajo Practico Educativo

Hector Ocejo Contreras

Advisor: Adriana Garrido H

Xalapa-Enriquez, Veracruz 2013

zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTS

T a b l e of C o n t e n t s Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 Theoretical Background 2 . 1zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Theoretical background

3

2 . 2 Translating concepts

5

2 . 3 The Non-equivalence problem

6

2 . 4 Top-down, bottom-up approaches to translation

7

2 . 5 Lexical difficulties

9

2 . 5 . 1 Borrowing or loan words

9

2 . 5 . 2 The Caique

10

2 . 5 . 3 Proper names

10

2 . 5 . 4 People's names

11

2 . 5 . 5 Geographical names

12

2 . 5 . 6 Words with Latin or Greek roots

13

C h a p t e r 3 T r a n s l a t i o n of t e x t s 3 . 1zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA The Rise of Rome 1000-100 BC

15

3 . 2 The Roman Empire AD 1-300

19

3 . 3 Rome: an Imperial City 100BC - AD 400

23

3 . 4 A Roman Landscape 50 BC - AD 400

27

T r a n s l a t i o n of I l l u s t r a t i o n s a n d M a p s 3 . 1 The Rise of Rome 1000-100 BC (Source Language Text (SLT) pp 168-9) 3 . 1 . 1 Rome and Carthage SLT & TRANSLATION

31

3 . 1 . 2 The Development

of Republican Rome SLT & TRANSLATION

36

3 . 1 . 3 The Pre-Classical

West SLT & TRANSLATION

40

3 . 1 . 4 Iron Age Italy 1000-100BC SLT & TRANSLATION

41

3 . 2 The Roman Empire AD 1-300 (SLT pp 170-1) 3 . 2 . 1 Rome: Imperial Control SLT & TRANSLATION

47

3 . 2 . 2 Inchtuthill: A Legionary Fortress SLT & TRANSLATION

55

3 . 2 . 3 Civil and Military Power SLT & TRANSLATION

57

3 . 3 Rome: an Imperial City 100BC - AD 400 (SLT pp 172-3) 3 . 3 . 1 Rome and the Tiber Valley SLT & TRANSLATION

59

3 . 3 . 2 The City of Rome SLT & TRANSLATION

66

3 . 3 . 3 3 Images of Rome SLT & TRANSLATION

68

3.4

A Roman Landscape 50 BC - AD 400 (SLT pp 174-5)

3 . 4 . 1 Trier: A Provincial Capital SLT & TRANSLATION

69

3 . 4 . 2 A Roman Country House SLT & TRANSLATION

73

3 . 4 . 3 Agriculture and Industry SLT & TRANSLATION

76

Translation Comments 3 . 5 Choosing the correct lexical equivalence

78

3 . 6 Words with Latin or Greek roots

84

3 . 7 Proper and place names

91

Conclusion

100

Bibliography

102

A p p e n d i x 1 SOURCE LANGUAGE TEXT

105

A p p e n d i x 2 TARGET LANGUAGE MAPS USED IN THE TRANSLATION

108

CH APT ER 1 1. I N T RODU CT I ON

In the Translation Process, translators may find many difficulties. In this paper some of the lexical difficulties will be addressed. Specifically, I will define and comment on borrowings, caiques, the translation of proper and geographical names, and words with Latin or Greek roots. Some translation concepts by Mona Baker, Mildred L. Larson, Peter Newmark, and Vazquez Ayora will be discussed. These authors constitute the main theoretical background in this paper. They make reference to other linguistics and translation scholars who will be referred to in the theoretical background. Since the Source Language Text is about the Roman Empire, the translation of proper and geographical names is one of the most common lexical difficulties found in this paper. Many of those names have been borrowed from the modern Italian language, and then, borrowed again by English and Spanish from the Italian form with little or no modification. In the theoretical background, I will review what strategies translation scholars use to deal with these. Another common lexical difficulty is words having Latin or Greek roots. I will review some strategies to translate these words. Obje c t ive s: The work objectives will be listed following Bloom's taxonomy model. a) Exhibit memory of learned material and theoretical knowledge obtained in studies performed at the School of Languages of the University of Veracruz which includes

among

others:

Spanish,

English,

the

English

workshop,

Translation

workshop, Linguistics, Culture, and automated translation. b) Demonstrate understanding of facts and ideas by presenting an acceptable translation achieved by the application of the theoretical knowledge. c) Solve problems by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques, and rules in a different way to the new situations. In this specific case, the Lexical difficulties

in the translation of the texts:zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA "The rise of Rome 1000-100 BC", "The

Roman empire AD 1-300", "Rome: an imperial city 100 BC-AD 400" and "a Roman landscape 50 BC-AD 400".

d) Examine and break information into parts by identifying motives and causes. Compile information together in a different way by combining elements in new patterns to propose alternative solutions to the Lexical difficulties found during the translation process. I will be adding personal comments of the different elements, relationship and organizational principles included in the theoretical background of this final paper. Analysis and synthesis of Lexical difficulties is included in the Comments section of this paper. e) Present and defend opinions by making judgments about Lexical difficulties found in the translation in terms of theoretical background. Evaluation will be included in the conclusion text at the end of this paper. f) To obtain the bachelor degree in the Universidad Veracruzana in the career "Licenciado en Lengua Inglesa". M e t hodology: The translation is presented in a Yuxtalineal format proposed by Valentin Garcia Yebra in "Teoria y practica de la traduction." (1989: 330). In this format the Source Language (English in this case) is in the left column and the Target Language (Spanish in this case) is in the right column of a page. Example of Yuxtalineal translation Rome and Carthage in the west Mediterranean 3

rd

Roma y Cartago en el oeste del Mediterraneo, siglo 3 al 1 A.C.

st

- 1 century BC

Carthaginan city

Ciudad cartagines

Carthaginan cementery

Cementerio cartagines

For

the

different

images

and

maps

of

each

chapter,

the

translation

presentation has followed a different format in order to make it easier to read. All Images are presented first in English and then in Spanish. When space permits, they are presented on one page, English on the top half and Spanish on the bottom. Maps are presented in their actual Source Text format followed by the translation.

Some

texts have being enlarged from their original size to make reading easier. Many maps have names. Name translations are presented in the Yuxtalineal translation format.

CH APT ER 2 2 .1 T H E O R E T I C A L B A C K G R O U N D

Theoretical background is based on four authors, Mona Baker, Mildred L. Larson, Peter Newmark, and Vazquez Ayora. According to these authors, Literal translation is not the best method to translate, although they make reference to the possibility of using it in limited and exceptional cases. They all agree that language is a system of words, with rules, functions, and purposes that translators must understand and know in order to render a proper translation. All of them agree that a translator needs to transfer meaning (ideas and concepts) and not words. However, they also emphasize the importance of understanding the word as a basic entity of meaning conveyor in languages.

Vazquez Ayora uses the Henry Van Hoff termzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPO "unidad lexicologica" to

define the smallest combination of words that convey meaning which can be translated isolated from the rest of the text. However, Mona Baker (1992) comments:

"We are primarily concerned with communicating the overall meaning of a stretch of language. To achieve this, we need to start by decoding the units and structures that carry that meaning. The smallest unit, which we would expect to possess individual meaning, is thezyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA word."

Baker acknowledges the fundamental importance of the lexical unit, but she also acknowledges that meaning can be transferred by more complex structures than the word. The meaning of a written or oral message can be carried out by a sentence, a paragraph, an entire text, or even by the situation and time the message was sent. As translators, we also need to be aware that meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word. In a Bottom-Up approach, the translator must understand these small units of meaning. In his Oblique Translation Method, Vazquez Ayora (1977) refers to the importance of the Metalinguistic. Metalinguistic is all extra linguistic aspects which affect the meaning of words. Newmark also points out the importance of culture (or extra-linguistic aspects) in the translation process. The translator is a key player in the intercultural communication process. In A Textbook

about

Translation,

Newmark

(1988) defines culture as "the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression", highlighting the fact that each language community has its own cultural specific features. He introduced the concept of "Cultural word" which he categorizes as follows: 1.

Ecology: flora, fauna, plains, hills, winds, plains. W e are all aware of the

fact that every region has its own plants, fauna and geographical features which are endemic to that culture, e.g. pampa, tundra, tabuleiros, sirocco. 2.

Material Culture: food, clothes, houses and towns, transport etc. e.g.

sake, cognac, sari, poncho, huipil, rickshaw, palapa, kiosk. 3.

Social Culture: work and leisure e.g. rock n' roll, salsa, hockey, reggae.

4.

Organizations, Customs, Activities, Procedures e.g. Halloween, Y o m

Kippur, 9/11. 5.

Gestures and Habits: Shalam Aleikum, Namaste, Hola.

Newmark (1988) also says that the contextual factors for the translation process are important and includes the following: 1. Purpose of text 2. Motivation and cultural, technical and linguistic level of readership 3. Setting (does recognized translation exist?) 4. Recency of word/referent 5. Future or referent.

Therefore language and culture should be seen as closely related. Both aspects must be considered at translating. He proposes twelve translation procedures: Transference, Cultural Equivalent, Neutralization, Literal Translation, Label, Naturalization, Componential Analysis, Deletion, Couplet, Accepted Standard Translation, Paraphrase, and Classifier. In our comments section we will use some of these procedures.

2 .2 T R A N S L A T I N G CON CEPT S

Before addressing

lexical difficulties definitions,

it is important to

understand

Ferdinand de Saussure's (in Vazquez Ayora: 1977) linguistic sign. The linguistic sign, or word, sets a very important baseline to lexical difficulties since it is here, in the concept of the word that differences start. Mildred L. Larson (1984) comments: "a word is azyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA bundle of meaning". Therefore, a word can have several meanings depending on many linguistic and extra-linguistic situations. Translators need to be able to analyze the words of the source text in order to translate them. They have to be able to unpack the meaning of a word from its lexical form representation. In order to do this, translators can use dictionaries. A good translator will use all dictionaries and other banks of word terms available in his study of the source language text. He wants to be sure he knows the meaning of each word. However, translators must not try to match parts of speech from the Source Language into the Target Language since each language has its own system to arrange concepts in different parts of speech. Following on, Larson (1984) comments we know that translators will often find that

"there is no exact equivalence between the words of one language and the words of another (...) there is little guarantee that what is a noun in one language is best translated by a noun in another language (...) Languages combine meanings differently, there will be many words which will not have an exact one-word equivalent in the receptor language."

There may be times when the "bundles of meaning" of one word will not be included in dictionaries, including specialized ones.

2 . 3 T H E N O N -E Q U I V A L E N C E P R O B L E M

In spite of having a semantic field knowledge of semantics, translators may still face the problem of non-equivalence. Given that this paper is only concerned with the lexical item, I will focus on the non-equivalence problem at word (lexical unit) level. I comment on specific examples of lexical difficulties and non-equivalences in names of cities or places as well as with individual persons. When commenting on the lexical difficulties, I also comment on the importance of other extra-linguistic aspects which definitively determine the non-equivalence at word or name level. If we consider language as a system in constant change, we will need to understand that the concepts of that language present an inherent lexical difficulty to the translator.

2 .4

T O P -D O W N

&

B O T T O M -U P

APPROACH ES

TO

T RAN SLAT I ON

Translators aim at clearly communicating the intention of the source text in the translation. Although translators need to be completely aware of a word's meaning, they also need to understand the meaning resulting from combined lexical items. In other words, they need to understand not only the word's meaning but the meaning of the text as a whole.

To Snell-Hornby (in Baker, 1988:6) the text analysis is an

essential preliminary process to translation, as it is for many other authors including Newmark, as seen above. This preliminary process is also known as the "top-down" approach to translation. The translator goes from the macro to the micro perspective level. Hatim and Mason's model of the translation process (1990) also adopts this top-down approach. To them, it is the more valid, theoretically speaking, process to translate. However, for those who are not trained linguists, it can be difficult to follow since there is too much to take in all at once. Also, an excessive emphasis on the text's meaning runs the risk of forgetting the fact that a text is also a grammaticalsemantic unit and meaning is achieved through wording. Without a theory of wordings, there is no way of making explicit one's interpretation of the meaning of a text. Baker (1992) comments that a text is a meaning unit, not a form unit. To Baker meaning is realized through form and without understanding the meanings of individual forms there is no clear way to interpret the meaning of the text as a whole. Baker sums up the top-down approach thus:

"Translating words and phrases out of context is certainly a futile exercise, but it is equally unhelpful to expect a student to appreciate translation decisions made at the level of the text without a reasonable understanding of how the lower levels, the individual words, phrases, and grammatical structures, control and shape the overall meaning of the text. Both the top-down and the bottom-up approaches are therefore valid in their own way."

According to all reviewed items about the word, we can conclude that there is zyxwvutsrqponm little room for literal translation. For this paper I have decided to use Vazquez Ayora's

Oblique Translation Method, Peter Newmark's Translation Procedures, and Mona Baker and Mildred L Larson's translating concepts to comment on the translation of the texts:zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA "The rise of Rome 1000-100 BC", "The Roman empire AD 1-300", an imperial city 100 BC-AD 400" and "A Roman landscape Like

Baker,

Vazquez

Ayora

approaches

50 BC-AD

translation

"Rome:

400". with

bottom-Up

methodology. In other words, the translation process analysis starts at word level. However, he also stresses the importance of the text has a whole (top-down.) Vazquez Ayora comments that both approaches are required to be successful in translation. I believe it is very useful to combine the two approaches since it is otherwise which approach translators should use becomes a vague decision. The translator has to have in mind both approaches. For the purposes of this paper, I have analyzed the lexical difficulties from both a "top-down" translating considered.

and

"bottom-up"

approach. As defined above, the extra-linguistic elements

are also

2 .5 LEX I CAL DI FFI CU LT I ES

In this chapter I give a brief overview of the different lexical difficulties found in the translation of " The zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA rise of Rome 1000-100 BC", "The Roman empire AD "Rome: an imperial city 100 BC-AD 400" and "a Roman landscape

50 BC-AD

1-300", 400".

Although some morphological, pragmatic and grammatical aspects were considered, my comments are orientated to the lexical or semantic aspect. Not all lexical difficulties are included in this final paper.

2 .5 .1 BORROWI N GS OR LOAN W OR D S

In our globalized world, ruled in many senses by the Internet, I consider "borrowings" as one of the most common lexical difficulties. According to David Crystal (1987) a borrowing or loan word occurs when we "introduce a word (or some other linguistic feature) from one language or dialect into another".

In reality, a borrowing is

considered a euphemism by some scholars; Americo Castro (Valentin Garcia Yebra, 1989) proposed to change the term loan/borrowing by "linguistic adaptation" based on the fact that something which is lent is supposed to be restored or given back. In reality, when a language takes one word or expression from another it never gives it back. However, the term "borrowing" has already been accepted by many scholars and it would be difficult at this stage to substitute it. The loan words or borrowings are non-translated words or terms which are supposed to fill a semantic gap in the language that receives them. Many times, borrowings are related to a new technique or unknown concept in relation to the receptor language. In translation, these words or terms pose a special problem. Baker (1992) comments "loan words such as au fait, chic, and alfresco in English are often used for their prestige value, because they can add an air of sophistication to the text or its subject matter." Such words, therefore, are not translated, they remain in an "original form", or "as close as possible" to their original pronunciation in order to maintain their meaning. If we translate these words or terms, there is a strong chance of losing the Source Language meaning. As translators, there will be many times

when cultural differences are so great that the Target Language has no close equivalent word or term or none at all. Languages not only borrow words or terms, they also borrow names. Names which are not translated and are "borrowed" from the Source Language. Names have a meaning when they are understood within a cultural context. They could represent someone's behavior or a physical feature. Sometimes they are metaphors to describe someone's nature. In the Observations section of this paper, I elaborate more on the translation or non-translation of proper and geographical names. Although, proper names and borrowings are considered a lexical difficulty on their own, it has been difficult to separate them, since many times proper names are borrowed from the Target Language.

2 .5 .2 T H E CALQU E

Crystal (1987) states that "a special type of borrowing is known as azyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUT Loan translation or Caique". In this instance, the word is not borrowed as a whole, but its parts are translated separately and its elements form a new word in the Target Language. An example of caique would be the translation of the fairy tale Snow White into Blanca Nieves. Or the classic urban fast food "hot dog" into "perro caliente". In contrast, if we use the term "hot dog" in Spanish we will be using a borrowing. It is important to comment that to many translators borrowing and caique are the same. For analysis purposes, I have considered that a borrowing involves no translation but in a caique there is translation.

2 .5 .3 PROPER N AM ES

The translator must be very cautious when translating names. At first sight, the translation of names might be considered an easy task. However, this is not always the case. In this paper, whenever "names" are referred to it makes reference not just to people's names but also to geographical names (oceans, countries, regions,

settlements, rivers, etc.). In the translation section of this paper, over 700 names appear. The study of proper names is known as Onomatology.

Here we find

anthroponomastics, from the Greek anthropos (human being,) dedicated to the study of personal names and toponomastics from Greek topos (place,) dedicated to the study of place names. Some Scholars, such as Crystal, consider this division an arbitrary one since some places are also used as personal names. For example, Alberta in Canada is named after the fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, Princess Louise Caroline Alberta. In this final I will not enter into the finer points of Onomatology. The subject by itself is matter for deeper reflection. However, in order to translate a name, the subject of Onomatology must be take into account before the use of a translation procedure occurs. Knowledge of the meaning of the name can be a critical element in its translation.

2 .5 .4 PEOPLE S N AM ES

As translators, we need to find and follow an accepted theory. Name translation procedures, however, are referred to very briefly in translation books. To some scholars, names should not be translated at all. Larson comments under the definition of loan word: "Loan words are commonly used for the names of a people, places, geographical areas, etc." However, there will be times where name translations are needed, depending on the type of text. According to Newmark (1988: 215) if it is a science fiction story or tale, it may be a good idea to translate the names. However, I cannot imagine Darth Vader's name translated without losing semantic impact. Name translation is indeed a lexical difficulty. Names usually mean something to someone or to an entire community. If translators decide to follow the oblique translation method to translate, they may find they need to delve into the name's meaning and the importance of the extra-linguistic (Vazquez Ayora's Metalinguistic) aspects before deciding how to solve this lexical difficulty. To define a common ground, the New Encyclopedia Britannica (Vol.4, 1984) article about name translation states:

"The principle stands that unless a single object's or person's name has already an accepted translation it should not be modified in pronunciation and spelling. The established practices for translating historical figures' names are as follows: where sovereigns had Christian names and they were well known, their names, together with their titles were and are still usually mutually translated in the main European countries. The only living person whose name is always translated is the Pope's."

Newmark (1988) elaborates more about name translation. To him, if people's first names have no connotations in the text they should be "transferred" or "borrowed" to preserve a sense of nationality. The " I f denotes a condition that translators must observe carefully before translating people's first names. Newmark comments that the exceptions may be the names of saints and monarchs whose names are 'transparent'." Newmark specifically points out the following about Roman names: "Some prominent figures of classical Greece (...) and Rome are naturalized in the main European languages. (...). Romance Languages often translate the first names of prominent foreigners, if these are transparent."

This paper includes many Roman Emperors' names. I will comment more on these names in the Translation Comments section, however, it is fair to remark here that many of these names have being adapted or naturalized, as Newmark calls it, to Spanish. I consider this subject as a flexion point to discuss in this paper and elaborate more in the relevant chapter.

2 .5 .5 G E O G R A P H I C A L N AM ES

People like to understand their surroundings and in order to make sense or meaning of them, they give names to objects and places. Sometimes a physical feature, a construction, or an historical event defines the name of a place. For example "Rio Bravo, Victoria, Pueblo Bonito, Tierra Blanca, etc." Newmark (1988) comments: "You have to be up to date in your rendering, to check all terms in the most recent atlas or gazetteer and, where necessary, with the embassies concerned. You have to respect a country's wish to determine its own choice of names for its own geographical features (...) Some features are sufficiently politically uncontested to remain as they were in English: Belgrade (Beograd), Prague (Praha)""

He concludes: "Where appropriate, you have to 'Educate'. Austerlitz is Slavkov, a town in Czechoslovakia; Auschwitz, the most terrible word in any language, is Oswiecim".

To Newmark, translators should not invent new geographical names, but rely on official sources. According to International Standard on Translation ISO 2384 published in 1977 by Great Britain and the United States, and approved by twentyfour countries, to normalize international translations, geographical name translation should follow the following concept:

"Some geographical names have different versions in different languages zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcb (London, Londres, Londra, Londen, for example) while others do not have used versions: in this case they must not be translated but left in their original language. In bibliographical references, geographical names are to be given in the original language or transliterated."

2 .5 .6 W O R D S W I T H LAT I N OR GR EEK ROOT S

Translators may find a text with ancient words and must know what to do whenever facing such lexical difficulties. According to the New Encyclopedia Britannica (1984)

"Words with Latin or Greek root were mainly taken during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (...) Greeks in the 1 st Century AD made dictionaries to explain obsolete words from their rich literal past. Latin was also preserved in dictionaries, which were of considerable value because most scholarly work in Europe during the Middle Ages was done in Latin (...) the close juxtaposition of so many languages in Europe led to the appearance of many bilingual and polyglot (multilingual) dictionaries from the early middle Ages. Examples of certain words in the 7th and 8th centuries are the earliest records of English words. In the 16th and 17th centuries, works appeared combining French, English and Welsh. These works reflect the interest in the traffic with continental European cultures and the renaissance enthusiasm for classical literature. One result was the influx into English of many Greek and Latin derived words."

For this reason, today, many English words have a Latin or Greek root. When these words are names of objects, translators face a lexical difficulty. Depending on the context these words or names of objects need to be treated in the same way we would treat proper name translation. Newmark (1988) comments that we can consider these words as trademarks, brands or proprietary names and he believes

we need to "transfer" them from the Source Language into the Target Language and adds

"You have to ensure you do not become an instrument to promote the advertiser's attempts to make an eponym out of the product's name (unless you are translating the advert). For drugs, you have to consult a pharmacopeias to check whether the drug is marketed under another name in the TL; it is prudent to add the generic name."

I think that when Newmark talks about "transfer" he is really referring to a borrowing. In this paper the names of objects are not used for a marketing purpose. They are not products of regular consumption. The names of the objects in this paper are place or object names used during the age of the Roman Empire. These names used to have a semantic charge, or "bundle of meaning" that is no longer valid from a diachronic point of view. Products and items (objects) of that time have being replaced by new items. As these objects are no longer used, it is fair to say that they have no equivalent in today's lexicons. Today, when we use these objects' names, we think about their cultural and historic value. The semantic charge of the name has changed. For example,zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Moselkeramik can refer to a type of pottery manufactured in the 2nd century or to the technique to produce it. Either meaning refers to something that is not common nowadays. It is a name that we have inherited from ancient text about Roman decoration or history. W e have an object name to express an idea or a concept that does not belong to those of today. There is no equivalence and hence, many times, we have to "borrow" the term.

CH APT ER 3 T RAN SLAT I ON OF T EX T S 3 . 1 T h e rise o f R o m e 1 0 0 0 -1 0 0

3 . 1 El s u r g i m i e n t o d e R o m a d e l

BC

a no 1 0 0 0 al 1 0 0 A.C. Los centros culturales y politicos tradicionales del Este del Mediterraneo fueron a finales del 1er milenio A.C. dominados y absorbidos por el poderio de Roma, la cual habia creado una base de poder en y alrededor del Mediterraneo occidental y central. Este notable logro estaba relacionado con la penetracion gradual por parte de los colonos fenicios y griegos en el Mediterraneo occidental, ocurrida a principios del milenio (pag.160), y su influencia sobre las poblaciones indlgenas. La explotacion y comercio de los abundantes recursos -depositos de cobre en Cerdena, y plata, hierro y plomo en Italia e Iberia- fueron la clave para controlar esta region. Los etruscos, habitantes nativos de Toscana, fundaron ciudades en la Italia central alrededor del siglo 800 A.C. Este desarrollo probablemente se debio mucho a la riqueza de las tierras agricolas y a los extensos depositos de cobre y estano en las montanas de la Italia central. El alcance y la extension de la influencia etrusca se reflejan en hallazgos de bienes comercializados, tales como los recipientes de ceramica y jarrones de bronce en regiones tan alejadas como el Levante, el Norte de Africa y en las cuencas del Danubio y del Rin. En Italia, un extenso sistema de carreteras debio facilitar este comercio. Al mismo tiempo se fundaron y desarrollaron los puertos de Spina, Adria, Pirgi y otros, a menudo estrategicamente ubicados cerca de las principales ciudades etruscas como Tarquinia y Caere (Cerveteri).

5

The traditional cultural and political centers of the eastern Mediterranean were, by the end of the 1st millennium BC, overshadowed and subsumed by the might of Rome, 10 which had built up a power base in and around the western and central Mediterranean. This remarkable achievement was closely linked with the gradual penetration of the west 15 Mediterranean by Phoenician and Greek colonists from early in the millennium (page 160) and their influence upon the indigenous populations. The rich resources of the 20 region - copper ore deposits in Sardinia, and silver, iron and lead in Italy and Iberia - and their exploitation and trade provided both the key and conduit to power. 25

30

35

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45

The Etruscans, the indigenous peoples of Tuscany, founded cities in central Italy in about 800 BC. This development probably owed much to the richness of the agricultural land and extensive copper and tin deposits in the mountains of central Italy. The scope and extent of Etruscan influence is reflected in finds of traded goods, such as pottery vessels and bronze flagons, as far afield as the Levant, North Africa and the Danube and Rhine basins. Within Italy an extensive road system must have facilitated this trade. At the same time, Spina, Adria, Pyrgi and other ports were founded and developed, often strategically placed close to major Etruscan cities, such as Tarquinii and Caere (Cerveteri).

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Fortified hilltop cities were characteristic, but most of our knowledge of the Etruscans comes from the extensive cemeteries of rockcut tombs, which were architecturally sophisticated and filled with rich grave offerings of gold, bronze and iron. The Etruscans were famous for their metalworking, beautiful wall paintings and pottery. While Greek influence is apparent in the grid-plan model of the new cities, which the Etruscans founded and also in the use of the Greek alphabet in the Etruscans' own script, the individual artistic style, particularly noticeable in bronze and terracotta statuary, is original. By the 6th century BC the influence of Etruscan art and culture had extended over most of central Italy.

It was during the period of Etruscan dominance, in the 7th century BC, that Rome developed from a small village - whose principal remains are the cemeteries of 'hut urns' in which the ashes of the dead were buried - to a city of some importance, although probably still under Etruscan control. As the power of the Etruscans declined, that of Rome increased: Etruscan influence was undermined by Celtic incursions from the north in the 5th century BC while, despite a temporary setback from the Celts c . 3 9 0 BC, the power of Rome grew through a mixture of force and diplomacy, until by 2 5 0 BC it controlled the whole of peninsular Italy. This process was marked by the great achievements of Roman engineering:

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Las ciudades fortificadas en la cima de una colina eran tipicas, pero la mayor parte de nuestro conocimiento de los etruscos viene de los extensos cementerios de tumbas labradas en piedra, las cuales eran arquitectonicamente sofisticadas y llenas de valiosas ofrendas funebres de oro, hierro y bronce. Los etruscos fueron famosos por sus trabajos en el metal, sus hermosos murales y su ceramica. Aunque la influencia griega es obvia en el modelo de mapas en cuadricula de las nuevas ciudades fundadas por los etruscos, y tambien en el uso del alfabeto griego en la escritura etrusca, el estilo artistico individual, especialmente marcado en las estatuas de bronce y terracota, es propio. Para el siglo 6 A.C. la influencia del arte y cultura etruscos se habia extendido sobre la mayor parte de la Italia central. Fue durante el periodo de domination etrusca, en el siglo 7 A.C., cuando Roma paso de una pequena aldea (cuyos principales vestigios son los cementerios de urnas en forma de chozas en las cuales depositaban las cenizas de los muertos) a una ciudad de mayor importancia aunque probablemente aun estuvo bajo el control etrusco. Conforme el dominio etrusco decaia, el de Roma cretia: la influencia etrusca fue debilitada por las incursiones celticas del norte en el siglo 5 A.C; mientras que, a pesar de un reves temporal causado por los celtas en el 390 A.C., el poder de Roma crecio gracias a una mezcla de fuerza y diplomacia, hasta que en el siglo 250 A.C. Ilego a controlar toda la Italia peninsular. Este proceso estuvo marcado por los grandes logros de la ingenieria romana:

The building of the defensive "Servian" Wall around Rome and the construction of elaborate road and aqueduct systems, while in the 3rd 5 century BC the development of concrete revolutionized Roman engineering capabilities.

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The dominant maritime power in the Mediterranean during this period was Carthage, which had close links with the other Phoenician trading posts and colonies of northern Africa, southern Italy and Spain. Carthage gradually consolidated its power throughout the region, uniting the Phoenician colonies into a confederation, controlling the north African coast, all the west Mediterranean islands and Iberia south of the Ebro. By the 4th century BC Carthage was the wealthiest city in the region, issuing enormous quantities of currency; the city itself underwent a major expansion in the 4th century, with new areas of gridplan streets and houses, and a triple line of massive new landward fortifications with stables for war elephants and horses. Two harbours were also built, one for commercial shipping and one for the navy, an indication of the essentially maritime nature of Carthaginian power.

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The expansion of Rome inevitably led to conflict with Carthage; 40 their struggle for control of the west Mediterranean, the Punic Wars, continued for over a century. Supremacy at sea was crucial in these conflicts, and at Marsala in Sicily 45 remains of two Carthaginian ships have been found which were evidently sunk by ramming in battle.

La construccion de la muralla defensiva "Serviana" alrededor de 50 Roma y la construccion de complejas carreteras y sistemas de acueductos. En el siglo 3 A.C. la aparicion del concreto revoluciono las posibilidades de la ingenieria romana. 55

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El poder maritimo dominante en el Mediterraneo durante este periodo fue el cartagines, el cual tuvo un fuerte enlace con los otros puestos de comercio fenicios y colonias del Norte de Africa, el Sur de Italia y Espafia. Los cartagineses gradualmente consolidaron su poder por toda la region uniendo las colonias fenicias en una confederacion que controlaba la costa Norte de Africa, todas las islas del Oeste del Mediterraneo e Iberia al Sur del Ebro. Para el siglo 4 A.C. Cartago era la ciudad mas prospera en la region que emitia grandes cantidades de monedas; la ciudad misma tuvo una importante expansion en el siglo 4 A.C., con nuevas areas siguiendo el piano de construccion cuadriculado para calles y casas, y una triple linea de enormes fortificaciones tierra adentro con establos para elefantes de guerra y caballos. Se construyeron dos puertos, uno para los barcos comerciales y otro para los militares, claro indicio de la esencial naturaleza maritima del poder cartagines.

La expansion de Roma llevo inevitablemente a un conflicto con 85 Cartago. Sus combates por el control del Oeste del Mediterraneo, conocidos como las Guerras Punicas, continuaron por mas de un siglo. La supremacia en el mar fue crucial en 90 estos conflictos, y en Marsala, Sicilia, se han encontrado los restos de dos naves cartaginenses evidentemente hundidas al ser embestidas en batalla.

Gradually Rome took over Carthaginian island holdings and invaded Iberia and North Africa, finally capturing Carthage itself in 146 BC. 5 Thereafter Rome expanded rapidly; the construction of increasingly grandiose buildings in the city itself reflected its military might and ushered in the imperial era. The Mediterranean 10 became a Roman lake, and - until its disintegration in the 5th century A D the heart of the Roman Empire.

Gradualmente, Roma tomo el control sobre las islas cartaginesas, 50 invadio Iberia y el Norte de Africa, para finalmente capturar a la misma Cartago en el 146 A.C. De ahi en adelante, Roma se expandio rapidamente; la construction de 55 edificios cada vez mas grandiosos en la ciudad reflejaban su fuerza militar e inauguraban la era imperial. El Mediterraneo se volvio un lago romano, y hasta su desintegracion -en 60 el siglo 5 D.C.- el corazon del imperio romano.

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1 D.C. a l a n o 3 0 0 At its largest, in the 2nd century AD, the Roman empire extended for 5 some 4000 kilometers east-west and 3700 kilometers north-south, and its population was about 50-60 million. A major agent in both the formation and maintenance of the empire was the 10 systematically organized and efficient Roman army. In the first two centuries AD it amounted to about 300,000 soldiers, concentrated at the fringes of the empire, although there were vast 15 tracts of the Roman world where soldiers were never seen.

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The bulk of the empire's population lived in locally selfgoverning communities, which were ranked in status from those whose inhabitants enjoyed the full rights of Roman citizenship, down to those who bore the heaviest burden of taxation and had fewest privileges. A system of inducements encouraged communities and their leading citizens to seek higher status, thereby increasing their devotion to Rome. Even the very highest offices in the Roman world, such as membership of the Senate in Rome, the consulship or the role of emperor were accessible to provincials, and as time went on were occupied by them - the emperor Trajan (AD 98-117) was a Spaniard, Septimius Severus (AD 192-211) a North African and Diocletian (AD 284303) was from Dalmatia (modern Yugoslavia).

50 El imperio romano, en su cenit en el siglo 2 D.C. se extendla unos 3,700km de norte a sur y 4,000km de este a oeste, con una poblacion de 55 entre 50 y 60 millones de habitantes. Un factor importante para la formation y mantenimiento del imperio fue el eficiente y bien organizado ejercito romano. En el siglo 2 D.C. el ejercito 60 romano contaba alrededor de 300,000 soldados concentrados en las fronteras del imperio; aunque existieron vastos territorios del mundo romano donde nunca se vieron 65 soldados.

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La mayoria de la poblacion del imperio vivia en comunidades autogobernadas que variaban en importancia desde aquellas cuyos habitantes gozaban de todos los derechos de la ciudadania romana hasta aquellas que soportaban la pesada carga de los impuestos y tenlan los minimos privilegios. Un sistema de incentivos estimulaba a las comunidades y a sus ciudadanos mas importantes a buscar un status mas alto, de este modo su devotion hacia Roma aumentaba. Aun los cargos publicos mas altos del mundo romano, como el ser miembro del senado en Roma, consul, e inclusive el puesto de emperador, eran accesibles a los ciudadanos de las provincias, quienes con el paso del tiempo llegaron a ocuparlos. Trajano (98D.C.-117) era espanol, Septimio Severo (192 D.C.211) era del norte de Africa, y Diocleciano (284 D.C.- 303) era de Dalmacia («sic» la actual Yugoslavia).

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Agriculture was the main source of wealth in the Roman Empire. Commerce was also important, and staple crops were traded around the Mediterranean where the largest cities depended on food brought by sea. Between the 1st and 4th century AD Rome depended for its survival almost entirely on grain and olive oil imported from overseas, mainly from the North African provinces. A basic supply of these items was distributed free of charge to the city's population. This supply represented a major shift of resources throughout the Mediterranean and it had a distorting effect on the economy of the whole area: different regions prospered according to their importance as producers - first Italy, then Spain, then North Africa. At the fringes of the empire, the Roman army had a strong impact on the economy. Frontiers were often in areas of marginal agricultural value; both at the Sahara fringe and in the area of Hadrian's Wall in Britain, elaborate efforts were made to develop agriculture, and the population increased well beyond the region's normal capacity.

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La agricultura era la fuente principal de riqueza en el imperio romano. Su comercio tambien era importante por lo que los cultivos p r i n c i p a l s se vendian en todo el Mediterraneo donde las ciudades principals dependian de los alimentos traidos por mar. Entre los siglos 1 y 4 D.C. Roma dependia para su supervivencia casi por completo de los granos y del aceite de oliva importados principalmente de las provincias del norte de Africa. Un abastecimiento basico de estos productos se distribuia gratuitamente entre la poblacion de la ciudad. Ese abastecimiento representaba un gran intercambio de recursos por todo el Mediterraneo y tuvo un efecto reestructurador en la economia de toda el area ya que distintas regiones prosperaban de acuerdo a su importancia como productores. Primero Italia, luego Espana, y despues el Norte de Africa. En la periferia del imperio, el ejercito romano tuvo un fuerte impacto en la economia. Las fronteras a menudo se encontraban en areas de un valor agricola marginal; tanto en la zona del Sahara como en la zona de la muralla de Adriano en la Gran Bretana, se hacian cuidados esfuerzos para desarrollar la agricultura y la poblacion sobrepaso por mucho la capacidad normal de la region.

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Trade within and beyond the Roman empire can be traced primarily through finds of pottery. Table wares made in central Italy between the late 1st century BC and early 1st century A D were supplied to the Roman army in Gaul and Germany, and were traded beyond the limits of the empire to Britain and northern Europe; in another direction some of these wares travelled as far afield as southern India. In the 5th century A D wares made in Africa Proconsularis (modern Tunisia) are found in sites, however remote and rural, throughout the Mediterranean. These and many other examples highlight the fact that even low-value goods travelled far in the Roman empire, but how far trade was an important means of creating wealth, as in the modern world, is less certain. Most goods were undoubtedly moved by water where possible, since this was far easier than by land, despite the superb network of roads. Roman roads were primarily built for administrative purposes, for the movement of soldiers and for those engaged in official business, and, like many other monuments in the Roman world, as a visible symbol of Roman power.

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El comercio dentro y fuera del imperio romano puede trazarse principalmente a traves de los hallazgos de ceramica. A finales del siglo 1 A.C. y principios del 1 D.C. el ejercito romano de las zonas Gala y Germanica eran abastecidos con ceramica hecha en la Italia central; esta llego mas alia de los limites del imperio, hasta Inglaterra y el norte de Europa. En otra direction algunos de estos objetos llegaron hasta el sur de la India. En el siglo 5 D.C. la ceramica hecha en la Africa pre-consular (el actual Tunez) se encuentra en excavaciones, aunque sean remotas y rurales, por todo el Mediterraneo. Estos y muchos otros ejemplos resaltan el hecho de que aun los bienes de poco valor llegaban a lugares distantes dentro del imperio romano; sin embargo, no se sabe a ciencia cierta hasta que punto el comercio era un medio importante, tal como ocurre en el mundo actual, para crear riqueza. La mayoria de los bienes, sin lugar a dudas, se transportaban por medios maritimos cuando era posible pues era mucho mas facil que hacerlo por tierra a pesar de la magnifica red de carreteras. Las carreteras romanas fueron construidas principalmente para fines administrativos, para el movimiento de tropas, y para aquellos relacionados con asuntos oficiales y, como muchos otros monumentos en el mundo romano, como simbolo visible del poder romano.

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Culturally the Roman empire always had an eastern part, in which Greek was the dominant language, and a western, Latin part: the dividing line was approximately along the west coast of Dalmatia and half way between Leptis Magna and Cyrene in North Africa, with all of the more northerly provinces lying in the western part. Politically these two parts began to separate and to fragment internally in the 3rd century AD. For most of the 4th century they were formally divided under eastern and western emperors. During the course of the 5th century Rome's control in the west collapsed, while the eastern empire continued with its capital at Constantinople. In the west the break was strongest in northern Europe, which had weak economic and cultural ties with Rome, while the provinces towards the south remained within the economic system of the Mediterranean and life continued in a recognizably Roman tradition for another two centuries or more. In the 6th century most of this area was reabsorbed into the Byzantine empire based on Constantinople (page 238). The east evolved gradually into the Christian, Greek world of mediaeval Byzantium. Constantinople's political independence was to last another thousand years until the capture of the city by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

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Culturalmente el imperio romano siempre tuvo una parte oriental, en la cual el griego fue la lengua dominante, y una parte occidental, la latina; la llnea divisoria corria aproximadamente a lo largo de la costa oeste de Dalmacia y a medio camino entre Leptis Magna y Cirene en el Norte de Africa: Todas las provincias que se encontraban en la parte norte del imperio correspondian a la parte Occidental. Politicamente, estas dos partes comenzaron a fragmentarse internamente en el siglo 3 D.C. Durante la mayor parte del siglo 4 se dividieron formalmente bajo un emperador oriental y otro occidental. En el curso del siglo 5, el control de Roma en el oeste se derrumbo, mientras el imperio del este continuaba con Constantinopla como su capital. En el oeste, el rompimiento fue mas fuerte en el norte de Europa donde los lazos culturales y economicos con Roma eran debiles, mientras tanto, las provincias del sur permanecieron dentro del sistema economico del Mediterraneo y la vida continuo con una reconocible tradicion romana durante otros dos siglos o mas. En el siglo 6 la mayor parte de esta area fue reabsorbida dentro del imperio Bizantino con base en Constantinopla (pag.238). El este evoluciono gradualmente hacia un mundo griego cristiano del Bizancio medieval. La independencia politica de Constantinopla duraria otros mil anos hasta la caida de la ciudad a manos de los turcos otomanos en 1453.

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Between the 1st and 4th centuries AD the city of Rome had a population of about a million people. Its growth mirrored the expansion of Roman power, with the most dramatic change coming in the last two and a half centuries BC. The Romans had extended their sphere of political control outside Italy, first around the shores of the Mediterranean and then towards north-western Europe. Prior to Rome's foundation, traditionally dated at 753 BC, there had been a farming population living in village communities housed in simple huts (page 168). It was the Etruscans who first organized these peoples into an urban community. The Etruscans drained the marsh on what would later be the site of the Roman forum, enabling it to become a focus for the settlements on the surrounding hills. They also built the first streets and masonry houses and gave the city its first public buildings, such as the temple of Capitoline Jupiter. Etruscan political power ended with the creation of the Republic in 510-509BC.

Rome at this stage was still a small community much preoccupied with regional politics in central Italy, and having little contact with the wider Mediterranean world. By the early 3rd 40 century BC, however, Rome dominated the whole of the Italian peninsula, including most of the Greek cities of southern Italy and Sicily, and was forced into full contact with the 45 wider world.

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1 0 0 A . C . - 4 0 0 D.C. Entre los siglos 1 y 4 D.C. la ciudad de Roma tenia una poblacion alrededor de un millon de habitantes. Su crecimiento reflejaba la expansion del poder romano cuyo cambio mas drastico ocurrio en los ultimos 2 y medio siglos A.C. Los romanos habian extendido su territorio de control politico mas alia de Italia; primero alrededor del Mediterraneo y despues hacia el noroeste europeo. Antes de la fundacion de Roma, tradicionalmente fechada en el 753 A.C., ya existian poblaciones agricolas que vivian en aldeas y que habitaban simples chozas (p.168). Fueron los etruscos quienes por primera vez organizaron a esos pueblos en una comunidad urbana. Los etruscos drenaron el pantano sobre el cual, tiempo despues, descansaria el foro romano, haciendo posible que este se convirtiera en el foco de los asentamientos en las colinas circundantes. Fueron tambien los etruscos quienes construyeron las primeras calles y casas de mamposteria y dieron a la ciudad sus primeros edificios publicos, tales como el templo dezyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQP Jupiter Capitolino. El poder politico etrusco termino con la creation de la republica en el 510-509 A.C.

En este momento Roma todavla era una comunidad pequena 85 en la Italia central muy ocupada con la polltica regional y que tenia muy poca relation con el amplio mundo del Mediterraneo. A principios del siglo 3 A.C., sin embargo, Roma dominaba la 90 totalidad de la peninsula italiana, incluyendo a la mayoria de las ciudades griegas del sur de Italia y Sicilia, lo que la obligo a entrar en contacto con un mundo mas amplio.

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Greece was still the principal artistic and cultural centre of the Mediterranean, and Greek ideas on everything from literature and philosophy to urban planning and the visual arts had a major impact. Rome as a city was backward at this time: it had grown rapidly and chaotically as its population exploded. There were no local sources of marble or fine building stones, so many of the buildings were in timber or mud or of rubble using the local volcanic tufa. Indeed, among the aristocracy there was a moral ethos supporting austere simplicity, opposed to the corrupting effects of 'eastern luxury'. Some Greek envoys in the early 2nd century BC were unwise enough to be amused at the contrast between Rome and the cities to which they were accustomed.

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25 In the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, however, Greek artists and works of art were imported and fine Italian 30 building stones began to be exploited. Roman building technology overtook the Greek world through the structural use of concrete for walls, arches and vaults. This was accompanied by the 35 development of characteristic Roman building forms - the triumphal arch, the bath building with its huge vaulted and domed spaces, the theatre, amphitheater and circus with their 40 seating artificially raised up on series of concrete vaults.

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Grecia todavia era el principal centro artistico y cultural del Mediterraneo y sus ideas, que abarcaban desde la literatura y la filosofia hasta la planeacion urbana y las artes visuales, tuvieron un gran impacto. Roma, como ciudad, estaba atrasada en muchos aspectos. Habia crecido rapida y caoticamente; tambien su poblacion crecio muy rapido en poco tiempo. En el area no habia recursos naturales como el marmol o piedras finas para la construction. Asf que la mayoria de los edificios eran de madera, barro, o de Tufa (piedra sin labrar de origen volcanico). Definitivamente, entre la aristocracia existia la idea moralista que apoyaba una simplicidad austera opuesta a los efectos corruptos del "lujo del este". Algunos emisarios griegos, a principios del siglo 2 A.C., no fueron lo suficientemente sabios para maravillarse con el contraste entre Roma y las ciudades a las cuales estaban acostumbrados.

A pesar de esta realidad, en los siglos 2 y 1 A.C., se importaron artistas griegos y obras de arte. Se utilizaron finas rocas italianas en las construcciones. La tecnologia de 80 construction romana supero al mundo griego a traves del uso estructural de concreto para paredes, arcos y bovedas. Todo esto enmarcado por el desarrollo de caracteristicas propias 85 de los romanos en las formas de sus construcciones; como el arco del triunfo, el edificio de banos con sus enormes espacios con bovedas y domos, el teatro, el anfiteatro, y el 90 circo con sus butacas artificialmente escalonadas por una serie de bovedas de concreto.

The use of concrete also revolutionized the pace and organization of major public building projects, since large unskilled forces 5 could now supplement skilled masons.

In periods of internal strain 10 Roman politicians turned increasingly to monumental building as a device for expressing their aspirations. All these factors led to a transformation of the city in the late 1st century BC. 15 Augustus' claim that he found Rome a city of brick and left it one of marble was well founded.

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Just as the growth of Rome was linked to the growth of the empire in the west, so was its decline. A period of political instability in the 3rd century is reflected in a lack of major monuments, and when order returned at the end of the century the main focus of the empire had shifted eastwards. Appropriately Rome's greatest monument of this period is a military one - the defensive wall with which the emperor Aurelian enclosed the city in the 270s after nearly six centuries in which it had been unwalled. Constantine the Great, who briefly reunited the eastern and western halves of the empire, brought Rome's era as the capital of the empire to a close by the foundation of his 'new Rome' at Constantinople in AD330 (page 238).

El uso del concreto tambien revoluciono el ritmo y la organization de los principales proyectos de 50 construccion de edificios publicos, pues ahora habia un gran numero de obreros sin experiencia para apoyar a los albaniles mas experimentados. 55

En periodos de tension interna, los politicos romanos se dedicaban principalmente a la construccion de monumentos como un medio para expresar sus aspiraciones. Todos 60 estos factores llevaron a una transformation de la ciudad a finales del siglo 1 A.C. La frase celebre de Augusto estaba bien fundamentada al decir que cuando llego Roma era una 65 ciudad hecha de ladrillos y cuando se fue dejo una ciudad de marmol.

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Asi como el crecimiento de Roma se relacionaba con el crecimiento del imperio en el oeste, as! fue su caida. Un periodo de inestabilidad politica en el siglo 3 se refleja en la falta de grandes monumentos; y cuando volvio el orden, a finales de siglo, la atencion del imperio se enfoco hacia el este. Apropiadamente, el monumento mas grande de este periodo es uno militar: la muralla defensiva con la cual el emperador Aurelio encerro la ciudad en el 270 despues de aproximadamente seis siglos en los cuales no habla tenido muralla. Constantino el Grande, quien por un periodo reunifico a las dos mitades del imperio (la occidental y la oriental), llevo la era de Roma, como capital del imperio, a su fin con la fundacion de su "nueva Roma" en Constantinopla en el 330 D.C. (pag.238).

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However, he also provided Rome with one of its most magnificent monuments in the arch which bears his name. This incorporates sculptures 5 from monuments of the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius and thus looks back to the 'golden age' of the 2nd century, when the whole empire was politically united and 10 Rome basked in its unrivalled glory.

Sin embargo, fue tambien el quien le dio a Roma uno de sus mas 50 magmficos monumentos en el arco que lleva su nombre, el cual incorpora esculturas de los monumentos de los reinos de Trajano, Adriano, Marco Aurelio, trayendo consigo los 55 recuerdos de la "Era de Oro" del siglo 2 cuando todo el imperio estaba politicamente unido y Roma gozaba de una inigualable gloria. 60

Rome's future was now as a 15 Christian center, and already under Constantine some magnificent churches were being built. It remained a great city for another century or more, but its population declined and 20 although it never disappeared altogether, Rome was still a modest city of a few tens of thousands when it was selected as the capital of a united Italy in 1870.

El futuro de Roma fue entonces el de un centro Cristiano y ya bajo Constantino se construyeron algunas magnfficas iglesias. Roma permanecio como una gran ciudad por otro siglo o 65 mas; sin embargo, su poblacion disminuyo y si bien nunca desaparecio del todo, Roma seguia siendo una modesta ciudad de unas cuantas decenas de miles cuando se la 70 selecciono como la capital de la Italia unida en 1870.

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4 0 0 D.C.

A pesar de la estructura politica centralizada del imperio, la forma de vida romana era extremadamente adaptable y variaba 55 considerablemente de una provincia a otra. Una perspectiva del mundo colonial romano se da en la arqueologia del area de Trier, en el oeste de Alemania. 60 La mayor parte del material que The bulk of the surviving sobrevive data de los primeros tres material dates from the first three siglos D.C. cuando la fuerza del centuries AD, when the strength of the imperio llevo paz y seguridad aun a empire brought peace and security las areas fronterizas; y even to frontier areas, and supply of 65 definitivamente, el abastecimiento de the Rhine armies may indeed have los ejercitos del Rin pudo haber sido la been a major source of local income. fuente principal del ingreso local. La The structure of settlementzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA (below) estructura del asentamiento (abajo) se was based primarily on small towns basaba principalmente en pequenas and villages (vici), linked by an 70 ciudades y poblados (vici) unidos por extensive road network. Scattered una extensa red de carreteras. across the countryside were villas or Esparcidas a traves del campo farmsteads. A further important existian aldeas y granjas. Un elemento element in the landscape were aun mas importante en el paisaje numerous shrines, many of them fairly 75 fueron los numerosos templos, small and usually consisting of one or muchos de los cuales eran muy more temples within a sacred precinct, pequenos y usualmente consistian de commonly located at springs or on una o mas capillas dentro de un prominent hilltops. Excavations show recinto sagrado, comunmente that despite the adoption of Roman 80 localizado junto a los manantiales o en architectural styles, the people of the lo alto de las colinas. Las north-west provinces continued to excavaciones muestran que a pesar venerate traditional Celtic nature de la adoption de estilos deities. arquitectonicos romanos, la gente de 85 las provincias del Noroeste continuaban venerando las deidades de la naturaleza de la tradition celta.

Despite the centralized political 5 structure of the empire, the Roman way of life was extremely adaptable and varied considerably from province to province. Some insight into the colonial Roman world is provided by 10 the archaeology of the Trier area in West Germany.

15

3 .4 U n pa isa je rom a no 5 0 A.C-

At the center of the region lay Colonia Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), one of the principal cities of the 5 Roman empire, a walled area of 285 hectares with a population of over 80,000 at its height in the 4th century AD, when it became an imperial capital.

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En el centro de la region estaba 50 la colonia Augusta Treverorum (la actual Trier), una de las principales ciudades del imperio romano que abarcaba un area amurallada de 285 hectareas con una poblacion de mas 55 de 80, 000 habitantes y que en su cenit en el siglo 4 D.C. se convirtio en la capital imperial

Las investigaciones Archaeological research in the countryside has concentrated on the 60 arqueologicas en los campos se han villas, and has shown that these varied concentrado en las villas y ha considerably in size and comfort. demostrado que estas variaban Some were nearly stone houses set in considerablemente en tamano y a yard, the equivalent of the earlier comodidad. Algunas nada mas eran Celtic wattle-and-daub farmsteads. 65 casas de piedra ubicadas en un With increasing prosperity, however, campo, el equivalente de las primeras buildings became more elaborate and granjas de carrizo y arcilla. Sin luxury features were introduced. At embargo, con una prosperidad en the upper end of the range stood the aumento, en otras los edificios se great 3rd-century villa of Nennig, with 70 volvieron mas complejos y se les mosaics, hypocausts, peristyle courts, anadieron articulos de lujo. En el final fountains, and a substantial bath superior de la epoca existio la gran house. The entrance hall was villa de Nennig del siglo 3, que decorated with a large rectangular contaba con mosaicos, hipocaustos, mosaic, a complicated geometric 75 patios con peristilos y un gran bano. El pattern framing a central fountain and recibidor de la casa estaba decorado hexagonal panels depicting man and con grandes mosaicos rectangulares; animal combats but also including a un complejo dibujo geometrico que water organist and a horn player. rodeaba la fuente central y cuadros Nennig is, however, exceptional in its 80 hexagonales que mostraban combates scale and elaboration, and smaller de animales y hombres pero que establishments like that at Kolntambien incluian a un organista de Mungersdorf the RhinelandzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA (below) agua y a un trompetista. Sin embargo, were more usual. Nenning es excepcional por su 85 tamano y complication ya que eran mas usuales fincas mas pequenas como la de Koln- Mungersdorf en Renania (abajo).

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Much of the land around Trier probably remained under forest during the Roman period, and was used as a source of timber, material for basketry and pasturage for swine Funerary monuments show that woolen cloth was being produced and traded, so substantial herds of sheep must have been kept. A survey of a small area near Mayen has revealed traces of a field system associated with a modest, native-style farm. These fields were long and narrow, about 180 meters by 20-25 meters. Wheat, barley and oats were grown, some of the wheat probably for consumption by the Rhine armies, and the Mosel valley was above all important for its vineyards.

Mucha de la tierra en Trier 50 probablemente continuo siendo bosque durante el periodo romano y fue utilizada como fuente de cesteria, madera, y pastura para los cerdos. Los monumentos funerarios muestran 55 que se producia y comercializaba con tela de lana, por lo que deben haber existido grandes rebanos de ovejas. Un estudio de una pequena area cerca de Mayen ha revelado huellas 60 de un sistema de campo asociado con una modesta granja de estilo-nativo. Estos campos eran largos y estrechos, alrededor de 180 metros por 20-25 metros. Se cultivaba trigo, cebada y 65 avena. Probablemente los ejercitos del Rin consumian parte del trigo producido. El valle del Mosel era el mas importante debido a sus vinedos. 70

Although agriculture was the 25 basis of the economy of the region throughout the Roman period, the Trier area and the Rhineland were also famous for manufacture of glass and pottery. The principal centre of 30 glassmaking was Koln (Cologne), where remains have been found of several furnaces which were in production as early as AD50. By the 4th century Koln had become the 35 major glass producer of the Roman Empire, and glass vessels began to be manufactured also at Mayen, near Trier. Late Roman glassware from these centers frequently displays an 40 impressively high level of skilled workmanship. Trier was a pottery manufacturing center, with groups of kilns situated on the hank of the Mosel just outside the walled area

75

80

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90

Aunque la agricultura era la base de la economia de la region durante el periodo romano, el area del Trier y la Renania tambien eran famosas por la manufactura de vidrio y ceramica. El principal centro productor de vidrio era Koln (Colonia), donde se han encontrado restos de varios hornos que estuvieron produciendo hasta el ano 50 D.C. Para el siglo 4, Koln se habia convertido en el mayor productor de vidrio del imperio romano, y tambien se empezaban a manufacturar recipientes de vidrio en Mayen, cerca de Trier. Los ultimos productos de vidrio romanos de estos centros frecuentemente muestran un alto nivel de mano de obra calificada. Trier era el centro m a n u f a c t u r e r de ceramica con grupos de hornos situados sobre los bancos del Mosel justo fuera del area amurallada.

Hp i ponu i m/»••, 1

ROME A N D CARTHAGE

Lipd,a

^ Meiauriisit ACauo i ma S o o l e s i Zwfliif-V-' Alokri Ep &) 3 Q. o> to

Ae i xandna O

V 169

1 ROMA Y CARTAGO El p r i m e r

m i l e n i o D.C. o b s e r v o el s u r g i m i e n t o

ciudades

y

estados

en

levantamiento

de

esencialmente

producto

civilizaciones

el

Oeste

del

ciudades-estado

urbanas

de

etruscas

desarrollos

pronto

d e las

primeras

Mediterraneo y

con

de

indigenas.

comenzaron

a

Medma A f

los

Lipara

M

su

Soloeis Panormus,

piedra

expansion fenicias

(nuragas), de

del

a

competir

los c a r t a g i n e s e s , Oeste,

asentamientos, terracota.

y

se

que

refleja

monedas,

El p o d e r

en

la

supremacia.

absorbieron

en

tumbas

romano

por

la

y

Rhegium

Ma'salaO

La

de

shipwreck

Sicily

ASelinus

&

sus

funerarias

se e x t e n d i o

Via

»Segesta

colonias

distribucion

mascaras

Italia

las

Himera

iberos,

los b e r e b e r e s d e l n o r t e d e A f r i c a y los s a r d o s c o n sus f o r t a l e z a s de

Acragas

L e o n t i n c ' ^ M e g a r a Hyblaea

de

debido

La

lucha

entre

Cartago

y

seguida, d u r a n t e

gradual expansion

Roma

termino

con

una

GelaA

al

d e la h e g e m o n i a

romana

mostrada

^

/^Syracuse

Sea

Ak,aj CamannaA. -.Casmtnae

victoria

los d o s u l t i m o s siglos A.C., d e

Ionian

Naxos

A

e s t a b l e c i m i e n t o de una serie d e colonias unidas por carreteras.

romana;

AiCaulonia & ZatKla&yA.L o k r i Epuophyrii A

A

Meiaurus

Estas

extender

c o n t r o l s o b r e sus v e c i n o s m e n o s p o d e r o s o s , c o m o

Hipponium^'

el

Roma,

'Carthage

una

por

la

c a d a vez m a s a m p l i a d i s t r i b u c i o n d e sus m o n e d a s . Roma y Cartago en el oeste del Mediterraneo, siglo 3 al 1 A.C

T)

•

Ciudad cartagines

— Cementerio cartagines

•

Atlantic ft

/

Agaijie

Monte Bijrnorio ,

%,

• • C a i i i e wa

• T j r r o s,

h

"

imanIia

Clunia*

_ CunimbrKjj

j

i

^

Cosa O

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8osa»

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nrspus

Monte S u a : *

V

B

/

ft

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Leina

Sagunium Safe; vv Is Ibi/a •

Sulc

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LlchcV Cru; del Negro«

Carthago Nova

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Alrri'iar'H' \ MoyhogliVSyra • D|ebila a

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• Caylitin

Lipa"* A Zanele

Rl

Sabraia

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COJMIU:

Atlfns

v

"?l)'uin

Liiybaetimi™ Sicily A . A AASwanuse —Uiu.a Acragas^ Camana i • • • C a n h a g e' Med Hipoofco^jus

A

45 A.C.

aAC Jlloild l^knEpizephyrn Crete

1 t

a

n

e

a

n

S e

Alexandria o • -55

Ha.daHnetum ~«leplis • T h a p s us

C

romana

OPergamum

Sardinia

Motya^.

S

de la republica

J.

4

z

m

S

A

Asentamientos nativos de iberos y

/

A

•

.

•

Hasta el

J RnmeJU L *> , Corsica CumSe A.• capua * f Noapol Neapohs V Am' /?!:, Metapomun). • Olbia PosediomaFe lA a S m s H r r a t fea

TUetda ^

A Colonia griega franceses

Hasta el 150 A.C.

•

Arretiuin

A tniponae

J

A.C.

Monedas

U g e r n i m

/ ' • E n s e r u ne

' > /

Ciudades de la Italiana romana aprox.200

Hasta el 212 A.C.

A

•' rL - . U W Brfte ros

MSscaras de terracota

•

PlacentT^-O^"^ ti _LJ DA Ertitpiort^nil aOLuca / 'h'y'% ° V O,

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Bamer w e

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'V-

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Loire

Ocean

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Leptis M a g n a

3.1 THE RISE OF ROME 1000-100 BC (SLT pages 168 and 169) 3.1.1-1 R O M E AND CARTHAGE 11 ROMA Y CARTAGO This following list contains ALL names included in map 1 Rome and Carthage with their translation on the right column (Yuxtalineal translation format).

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1. - ADRIATIC SEA 2.-AEGEAN SEA 3.-AFRICA 4.-Atlas Mts 5.-Bizerta 6.-Cape Bon 7.-Carthage 8.-Djebila 9.-Gouraya 10.-Hadrumetum 11.-Hippo Regius 12.-Leptis 13.-Leptis Magna 14.-Lixus 15.-Moghogha Sura 16.-Rachgoun 17.-Sabratha 18.-Thapsus 19.-Tipasa 20.-Utica 21 .-ATLANTIC O C E A N 22.-ALPS 23.-MEDITERRANEAN SEA 24.-BALKANS 25.-GREECE 26.-Athens 27.-Corinth 28.-Crete (island) 29.-Cyprus (island) 30.-Danube (river) 31.-Ephesus 32.-Pergamum 33.-BLACK SEA 34.-GERMANY 35.-Rhine (river)

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50

55

60

65

70

75

I . - E L MAR ADRIATICO 2.-EL MAR EGEO 3.-AFRICA 4.-Montes Atlas 5.-Bizerta 6.-Cabo Bon 7.-Cartago 8.- Djebila 9.-Gouraya 10.-Hadrumet I I . - Hippo Regius 12.-Leptis 13.-Leptis Magna 14.-Lixus 15.-Moghogha Sura 16.-Rachgoun 17.-Sabratha 18.-Thapsus 19.-Tipasa 20.-Utica 21.- OCEANO ATLANTICO 22.-LOS ALPES 23.-MAR MEDITERRANEO 24.-BALCANES 25.-GRECIA 26.-Atenas 27.-Corinto : 28.-Creta (isla) 5 29.-Chipre (isla) 30.-Danubio (rlo) 31.-Efeso 32.-Pergamo 33.-MAR NEGRO 34.-ALEMANIA 35.-RIN (rio) *

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36.-EGYPT 37.-Alexandria 38.-Nile (river) 39.-FRANCE 40.-Agathe 41.-Baetercae 42.-Corsica (island) 43.-Emporiae 44.-Enserune 45.-Entremont 46.- Loire (river). 47.-Massilia 48.-Nicaea 49.-Rhone (river) 50.-Rognac 51.-Ugernum 52.-IBERIA 53.-Almunecar 54.-Azaila 55.-Bilbilis 56.-Balearic Is 57.-Cameixa 58.-Carthago Nova 59.-Citania de Briteiros 60.-Clunia 61.-Conimbriga 62.-Cruz del Negro 63.-Elche 64.-Elvina 65.-Gades 66.-lbiza Is 67.-Leiria 68.-Monte Bernorio 69.-Numantia 70.-Palantio 71.-Pyrenees(mountain chain). 72.-Saguntum 73.-Tagus (river) 74.-Termes 75.-Terroso 76.-Trayamar 77.-Uerda 78.-Villaricos 79.-Virobesca

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55

* 60 *

65

* 70

75

* 80

*

85

90

36.-EGIPTO 37.-Alejandria 38.-Nilo (rio) * 39.-FRANCIA 40.-Agathe 41.-Baetercae 42.-Corcega (isla) * 43.-Emporion (Ampurias) 44.-Enserune 45.-Entremont 46.-Loira (rio) * 47.-Nicaea 48.-Massalia 49.-Rodano (river) * 50.-Rognac 51.-Ugernum 52.-IBERIA 53.-Almunecar 54.-Azaila 55.-Bilbilis 56.-Baleares (isla) * 57.-Cameixa 58.-Cartago Nova 59.-Citania de Briteiros 60.-Clunia 61.-Conimbriga 62.-Cruz del Negro 63.-Elche 64.-Elvina 65.-Gadir 66.-lbiza (isla) * 67.-Leiria 68.-Monte Bernorio 69.-Numantia 70.-Palantio 71.-Pirineos(cadena de montanas)* 72.-Sagunto 73.-Tagus (no) * 74.-Termes 75.-Terroso 76.-Trayamar 77.-Uerda 78.-Villaricos 79.-Virobesca

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80.-ITALIA 80.-ITALY 81.-Ancona 81 zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA .-Ancona 50 82.-Aquileia 82.-Aquileia 83.-Ariminum 83.-Ariminum 84.-Arretium 84.-Arretium 85.-Bononia 85.-Bononia 86.-Brindisi 86.-Brundisium 55 87.-Capua 87.-Capua 88.-Cosa 88.-Cosa 89.-Cremona 89.-Cremona 90.-Cumas 90.-Cumae 91.-Caulonia 91.-Caulonia 60 92.-Crotona 92.-Croton 62.-Ebro (no) 63.-Ebro (river) 93.-Elea 93.-Elea 94.-Genua 94.-Genua 95.-Locria 95.-Lokri Epizephyrii 65 96.-Lucca 96.-Luca 97.-Luna 97.-Luna 98.-Metaponto 98.-Metapontum 99.-Mutina 99.-Mutina 100.-Neapolis 100.-Neapolis 70 101.-Parma 101.-Parma 102.-Posidonia 102.-Poseidonia 103.-Placentia 103.-Placentia 104.-Roma 104.-Rome 105.-Rhegion 105.-Rhegium 75 106.-Heraclea 106.-Siris/Heraclea 107.-Tarento 107.-Taras 108.-Cerdena (isla) 108.-Sardinia (island) 109.-Bosa 109.-Bosa 110.-Cagliari 110.-Cagliari 80 111.-Monte Sirai 111.-Monte Sirai 112.-Olbia 112.-Olbia 113.-Sulci 113.-Sulci 114.-Tharrus 114.-Tharrus 115.-Sicilia (isla) 115.-Sicily (island).... 85 116.-Akragas 116.-Acragas 117.-Camarina 117.-Camarina 118.-Gela 118.-Gela 119.-Lilibeum 119.-Lilybaeum 120.-Lipari (Isla) .. 120.-Lipari (island) 90 121.-Motya 121.-Motya 122.-Siracusa 122.-Syracuse 123.-Zancle 123.-Zancle 124.- LEVANTE 124.- LEVANT

2 The d e v e l o p m e n t of republican R o m e The city of Rome began life around the 9 t h century BC as a cluster of small huts on the Palatine hill w i t h a c r e m a t i o n c e m e t e r y in the marshy valley below. acquire

distinct

urban

During the late 7th century Rome began t o characteristics,

when

the

marshland

was

CO

cleared and laid out as a public square (forum).

—

Stone fortifications w e r e built on t h e Palatine and Capitoline hills, the Cloaca Maxima (a natural stream) was canalized to drain the valley floors, and earth and t i m b e r defenses (the agger) w e r e t h r o w n up to protect the eastern side of the city. The defenses of Rome w e r e considerably strengthened in t h e early 4 t h century BC by the construction of the Servian Wall, a massive

w —i. k> ro H 3" CD

—1 I m (/)

m O aqueduct, was built t o supply the g r o w i n g urban population. During n the last f e w centuries BC t h e expansion of Roman p o w e r t h r o u g h o u t 7J the M e d i t e r r a n e a n was reflected in the buildings of the capital, w i t h